The Effects of Climate and Vegetation Changes on Bird Diversity and Abundance in the Gandoman International Wetland, and Ranking the Wetland's Threatening Factors

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

1 Department of Natural Resources, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran,

2 Department of Natural Resources, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran.

3 Department of Environment, Chaharmahal va Bakhtiari Provincial Office, Shahr-e-Kord, Iran.

10.22059/jes.2026.402807.1008639

Abstract

Objective: Gandoman Wetland, located in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province, Iran, has increasingly been threatened by anthropogenic activities and climate change. Water extraction, agricultural runoff, and recurrent droughts have compromised its ecological stability. This study aimed to analyze changes in climatic variables and vegetation in the Gandoman Wetland and to assess their effects on bird diversity and abundance from 2011 to 2023, as well as to rank the factors threatening this wetland.
Method: Winter bird census data from 2011 to 2023 were obtained, and diversity indices—including Shannon–Wiener, Simpson, and Camargo evenness—were calculated. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was extracted from Landsat 7 and Landsat 8 satellite images for the study period. The Mann-Kendall test was used to evaluate trends in annual rainfall, mean annual temperature, SPI, NDVI, and diversity and evenness indices throughout the study period. To investigate the effects of climatic variables and vegetation on the abundance and diversity of wetland birds, Pearson correlation analyses were conducted. Threatening factors to the wetland were identified through field surveys and existing reports, and the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) was performed to rank these threats.
Results: The results revealed significant fluctuations in migratory bird abundance and species richness. The total number of species increased from 25 in 2011 to 57 in 2021. The annual mean temperature showed an increasing trend (Z = 2.0, p = 0.05), while rainfall showed a significant decreasing trend (Z = -2.2, p = 0.02). The SPI index also demonstrated a significant decline (Z = -3.7, p = 0.00). Conversely, the NDVI index displayed a significant increasing trend (Z = 2.6, p = 0.02). Additionally, the Simpson, Shannon-Wiener, and evenness indices all showed decreasing trends, indicating a reduction in diversity and the dominance of certain species. A positive correlation was observed between the NDVI index and the abundance, species richness, diversity, and evenness indices of birds. This relationship may reflect the density of aquatic plants that provide food, nesting sites, and shelter for birds. The positive correlation between precipitation and SPI with bird abundance and diversity indicates the direct impact of climatic conditions on the lives of organisms in this region. Hierarchical analysis revealed that four factors—agricultural water withdrawal (0.30), drought (0.25), sewage inflow (0.13), and livestock grazing (0.11)—had the greatest influence.
Conclusions: This study demonstrated that Gandoman Wetland has experienced significant ecological fluctuations, with both biodiversity and vegetation cover showing sensitivity to climatic and anthropogenic factors. Human activities, particularly uncontrolled water extraction and agricultural effluents, were identified as the primary threats, while climate change exacerbated these impacts.

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

انصاری‌نیا، مصطفی؛ صادقی‌نیا، مجید؛ قانعی، محمدجواد و ایرانمنش، یعقوب (1400). ارزیابی و سنجش آلودگی فلزات سنگین در رسوبات تالاب گندمان. اکوبیولوژی تالاب، 13(47 )، 35-50. https://sid.ir/paper/1032100/fa
ایرانمنش، یعقوب؛ جهانبازی گوجانی، حسن؛ شیرمردی، حمزه علی؛ شمس‌الدینی، شهباز و حبیبی، محسن (۱۳۹۹). برآورد ارزش اقتصادی کارکرد ترسیب کربن، تولید اکسیژن و تولید علوفه در تالاب گندمان. تحقیقات مرتع و بیابان ایران، ۲(۲)، ۲۶۵–۲۷5. https://doi.org/ 10.22092/ijrdr.2020.122766.1752
جعفری‌آذر، سمیرا؛ سبزقیایی، غلامرضا؛ توکلی، مرتضی و دشتی، سولماز (1399). ارزیابی ریسک و درجه‌بندی پایداری محیط‌زیستی تالاب‌های بین‌المللی سواحل جنوبی ایران. فصلنامه مخاطرات محیط طبیعی، 9 (23)، 41-62 . https://doi.org\10.22111/ JNEH.2019.28320.1487
حسینی‌طایفه، فرهاد و عاشوری، عباس (1400). بررسی روند تغییرات جمعیت و تنوع پرندگان آبزی زمستان‌گذران تالاب‌ها و نوار ساحلی جنوب دریای‌خزر. نشریه محیط زیست طبیعی، 74 (4) 809-824. https://doi.org10.22059/jne.2022.328521.2271
سالارپور، رقیه؛ ملکیان، منصوره و قدیریان، امید (1400). پایش تغییرات و رتبه‌بندی عوامل تهدید کننده تالاب میانگران، استان خوزستان. نشریه محیط زیست طبیعی، 74 (1)، 83-95. https://doi.org10.22059/JNE.2021.309286.2063
عابدی، طوبی و جنسی، زهرا (1399). بررسی عوامل مؤثر بر تخریب تالاب با توجه به معیارهای پشتیبان تصمیمگیری سیپا با رویکرد دلفی فازی (مطالعه موردی: تالاب امیرکلایه، استان گیلان). مطالعات علوم محیط زیست، 5(2) 89-96.
عبداله‌آبادی، مهسا؛ ملکیان، منصوره و پورمنافی، سعید (1402). تنوع و فراوانی پرندگان مهاجر تالاب بند علیخان ورامین و ارتباط آن با نوسانات آب تالاب و خشکسالی. بوم‌شناسی کاربردی، 12(4) 31-44 http://dx.doi.org/10.47176/ijae.12.4.1181
فتاحی نافچی، ر. (۱۳۹۴). طرح مطالعه جامع تالاب گندمان به منظور دستیابی به پروژه‌های احیای تالاب (جلد دوم). اداره کل محیط زیست استان چهارمحال‌وبختیاری ، شهرکرد، ۴۵0 ص.
محمدی‌نسب، مریم (۱۴۰۲). بررسی تنوع‌زیستی پرندگان تالاب تنودر دورود. اکوبیولوژی تالاب، ۸(۱۴)، ۱۷۷–۱۸۶. https://doi.org/10.61186/jert.41446.8.14.177
مهدیان‌زاده، فریده؛ سرهنگ زاده، جلیل و دهقان دهنوی، حجت (1399). شناسایی پرندگان زمستان گذران تالاب مصنوعی یزد. اکوبیولوژی تالاب، 12(46): 19-28. https://jweb.ahvaz.iau.ir/article-1-918-fa.html
نظری، نرجس؛ شمس اسفندآباد، بهمن؛ وروانی، جواد؛ احمدی، عباس و ترنج‌زر، حمید (1401). تغییرات کاربری اراضی محدوده تالاب و تنوع پرندگان آبزی و کنارآبزی در تالاب‌های بین‌المللی انزلی، آلماگل، آلاگل و آجی‌گل. مدلسازی و مدیریت آب و خاک، 2(3)، 27-39. https://doi.org/10.22098/mmws.2022.9871.1068
 Abdolahabadi, M., Malekian, M. & Pourmanafi, S. (2024). Diversity and Abundance of Migratory Birds in Bandalikhan Wetland in Relation to Water Fluctuations and Drought. IJAE, 12(4), 31. http://dx.doi.org/10.47176/ijae. 12.4.1181 [In Persian]
Abedi, T., & Jensi, Z. (2020). Investigation of factors affecting wetland degradation based on SIPA decision-support criteria using a fuzzy Delphi approach: A case study of Amirkelaye Wetland, Gilan Province. Journal of Environmental Science Studies, 5(2), 89–96. [In Persian]
Ansariania, M., Sadeghinia, M., Ghanei, M. J., & Iranmanesh, Y. (2021). Assessment and evaluation of heavy metal pollution in sediments of Gandoman Wetland. Journal of Wetland Ecobiology, 13(47), 35–50. https://www.sid.ir/paper/494242/fa  [In Persian]
Ashok, A., Rani, H. P. & Jayakumar, K.V. (2021). Monitoring of dynamic wetland changes using NDVI and NDWI based landsat imagery. Society and Environment, 23, 100547. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsase.2021.100547
Baschuk, M., Koper, N., Wrubleski, D. & Goldsborough, L. (2012). Effects of water depth, cover and food resources on habitat use of marsh birds and waterfowl in boreal wetlands of Manitoba, Canada. Waterbirds: The International Journal of Waterbird Biology, 35, 44-55. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41432473
Chen, Y., Xu, S., Wang, Y., & Li, Z. (2018). Bird diversity and its relationship with habitat characteristics in mangrove ecosystems. Wetlands Ecology and Management, 26(2), 299–311.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11273-017-9576-9
Colwell, M. A. (2010). Shorebird Ecology, Conservation, and Management. University of California Press.
Cui, L., Z. Wei, L. Zhou and B. Cheng. (2024). Effects of constant high water levels in winter on waterbird diversity in Caizi Lakes: A functional perspective. Global Ecology and Conservation, 52, e02934. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.gecco.2024.e02934
Delany, S., & Scott, D. (2006). Waterbird Population Estimates. Wetlands International.
Fairbairn, AJ., Katholnigg, S., Leichtle, T., Merkens, L., Schroll, L., Weisser, WW. & Meyer, ST. (2025). NDVI and vegetation volume as predictors of urban bird diversity. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 12863.
Fattahi Nafchi, R. (2015). Comprehensive study of Gandoman Wetland for wetland restoration projects (Vol. 2). Department of Environment, Chaharmahal va Bakhtiari Provincial Office, Shahr-e-Kord. 450p [In Persian]
Gregory, R. D., Van Strien, A., Vorisek, P., Gmelig Meyling, A. W., Noble, D. G., Foppen, R. P., & Gibbons, D. W. (2015). Developing indicators for European birds. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 360(1454), 269–288. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2004.1602
Gxokwe, S., Dube, T., & Mazvimavi, D. (2020). Multispectral remote sensing of wetlands in semi-arid and arid areas: A review on applications, challenges and possible future research directions. Remote Sensing, 12(24), 4190. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12244190
Haig, S. M., Mehlman, D. W., & Oring, L. W. (2019). Avian movements and wetland connectivity in landscape conservation. Conservation Biology, 33(1), 12–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13199
Hosseini Taifeh, F., & Ashouri, A. (2021). Assessment of population trends and diversity of wintering waterbirds in wetlands and coastal areas of the southern Caspian Sea. Journal of Natural Environment, 74(4), 809–824. https://doi.org/10.22059/jne.2022.328521.2271 [In Persian]
IPCC. (2021). Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157896
Iranmanesh, Y., Jahanbazi Gojani, H., Shirmardi, H. A., Shamseddini, Sh., & Habibi, M. (2020). Estimating the economic value of carbon sequestration, oxygen production, and forage production in Gandoman Wetland. Iranian Journal of Rangeland and Desert Research, 2(2), 265–275. https://doi.org/10.22092/ijrdr.2020. 122766.1752 [In Persian]
Jafari Azar, S., Sabzghabaei, G. R. , Tavakoli, M. & Dashti, S. (2020). Risk Assessment and Grading of Environmental Sustainability of the International Wetlands of Southern Coasts of Iran. Journal of Natural Environmental Hazards, 9(23), 41-62. https://doi.org/10.22111/JNEH.2019.28320.1487 [In Persian]
Kingsford, R. T., & Porter, J. L. (2009). Monitoring waterbird populations with aerial surveys—What have we learnt? Wildlife Research, 36(1), 29–40. https://doi.org/10.1071/WR08034
Klemas, V. (2011). Remote sensing of wetlands: Case studies comparing practical techniques. Journal of Coastal Research, 27(3), 418–427. https://doi.org/10.2307/29783262
Ma, Z., Cai, Y., Li, B., & Chen, J. (2010). Managing wetland habitats for waterbirds: An international perspective. Wetlands, 30(1), 15–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-009-0001-6
Maclean, I. M. D., Austin, G. E., Rehfisch, M. M., Blew, J., Crowe, O., Delany, S., Devos, K., Deceuninck, B., Günther, K., Laursen, K., Van Roomen, M., & Wahl, J. (2007). Climate change causes rapid changes in the distribution and site abundance of birds in winter. Global Change Biology, 14(11), 2489–2500. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01421.x
Mahdianzadeh, F., Sarhangzadeh J. & Dehghan Dehnavi, H. (2020). Identification of wintering birds of Yazd artificial wetland. Wetland Ecobiology, 12 (4), 19-28. https://jweb.ahvaz.iau.ir/article-1-918-fa.html [In Persian]
Malekian, M., Salarpour, R., & Ranaie, M. (2022). Wetland characteristics affect abundance and diversity of wintering birds: A case study in South-Western Iran. Ecology and Evolution, 12(11), e9558. https://doi.org/10.1002/ ece3.9558
Mandal, M. H., Yasmin, B., Roy, A., Ghosh, S. & Siddique, G. (2022). Investigating present status of foodplain wetlands as habitat of water birds and its determinants: an experience from lower part of Deltaic West Bengal, India. Wetlands, 42(7), 70-84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-022-01591-1
Mao, Q., Liao, C., Wu, Z., Guan, W., Yang, W., Tang, Y., & Wu, G. (2019). Effects of land cover pattern along urban-rural gradient on bird diversity in wetlands. Diversity, 11(6), 86. https://doi.org/10.3390/d11060086
Mereta, S.T.; Lemmens, P.; De Meester, L.; Goethals, P.L.M.; Boets, P. (2021). The Relative Importance of Human Disturbance, Environmental and Spatial Factors on the Community Composition of Wetland Birds. Water, 13, 3448. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13233448
Mitsch, W. J., & Gosselink, J. G. (2015). Wetlands (5th editon). John Wiley and Sons.
Mohammadi Nasab, M. (2023). Assessment of bird biodiversity in Tonodor Wetland, Dorud. Journal of Wetland Ecobiology, 8(14), 177–186. https://doi.org/10.61186/jert.41446.8.14.177 [In Persian]
Moomaw, W. R., Chmura, G., Davies, G. T., Finlayson, C., Middleton, B. A., Natali, S. M., Perry, J., Roulet, N., & Sutton-Grier, A. E. (2018). Wetlands in a changing climate: Science, policy and management. Wetlands, 38(2), 183–205. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-018-1012-5
Morris, J. T., Sundareshwar, P. V., Nietch, C. T., Kjerfve, B., & Cahoon, D. R. (2002). Responses of coastal wetlands to rising sea level. Ecology, 83, 2869–2877. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083[2869:ROCWTR] 2.0.CO;2
Murray, N. J., Clemens, R. S., Phinn, S. R., Possingham, H. P., & Fuller, R. A. (2014). Tracking the rapid loss of tidal wetlands in the Yellow Sea. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 12(5), 267–272. https://doi.org/10.1890/ 130260
Nazari, N., Esfandabad, B. S., Varvani, J., Ahmadi, A. & Toranjzar, H. (2022). Land use changes around the wetland and diversity of waterfowl and shorebirds in Anzali, Almagol, Alagol, and Ajigol international wetlands (Iran). Journal of Water and Soil Management and Modelling, 2(3), 27-39. https://doi.org/10.22098/mmws. 2022.9871.1068 [In Persian]
Nieto, S., Flombaum, P. & Garbulsky, M.F. (2015). Can temporal and spatial NDVI predict regional bird-species richness? Global Ecology and Conservation, 3, 729-735. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2015.03.005
Rajpar, M. N. & Zakaria, M. (2011). Effects of water level fluctuation on waterbirds distribution and aquatic vegetation composition at natural wetland reserve, Peninsular Malaysia. ISRN Ecology 2011: 324038. https://doi.org/10.5402/ 2011/324038
Rimal. B., Sharma. R., Kunwar, R., Keshtkar, H., Stork, NE., Rijal, S., Rahman, SA., & Baral, H. (2019). Effects of land use and land cover change on ecosystem services in the Koshi River Basin, Eastern Nepal. Ecosystem Services, 38, 100963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2019.100963
Salarpour, R., Malekian, M. & Ghadirian, O. (2021). Monitoring changes and ranking threat factors of Miangharan wetland, Khuzestan Province. Journal of Natural Environment, 74(1), 83-95. https://doi.org/10.22059/jne. 2021.309286.2063 [In Persian]
Tavernia, B. G., Reed, J. M., & Johnson, W. C. (2021). Wetland hydrology and vegetation structure influence use by waterbirds across spatial scales. Ecological Indicators, 125, 107558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind. 2021.107558
Xu, Q., Zhou, L., Xia, S. & Zhou, J. (2022). Impact of urbanisation intensity on bird diversity in river and wetlands around Chaohu Lake, China. Animals 12(4): 473. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12040473
Yao, X., Zhang, Y., Zhang, B. & Wang, J. (2020). Evaluating migratory bird habitat suitability in wetlands using vegetation and remote sensing-based hydrological indicators. Ecological Indicators, 113, 106230. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.106230
Zhang, Y., Zhou, L., Cheng, L. & Song, Y. (2021). Water level management plan based on the ecological demands of wintering waterbirds at Shengjin Lake. Global Ecology and Conservation, 27, e01567. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.gecco.2021.e01567
Journal of Environmental Studies
Volume 51, Issue 4
March 2026
Pages 431-452

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics