دانشگاه تهرانJournal of Environmental Studies1025-862040420141222Efficiency Consideration of Wastewater Treatment Plant of Tabriz using Artificial Intelligence ModelsEfficiency Consideration of Wastewater Treatment Plant of Tabriz using Artificial Intelligence Models8278445299910.22059/jes.2014.52999FASimaShokriGraduate Student, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of TabrizAta AllahNadiriAssistant professor, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of TabrizAsgarAsgari Moghaddamprofessor, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of TabrizJournal Article20140104Introduction <br />According to the shortage of water resources in the world, it seems necessary the use of refined water, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas such as Iran. The correct treatment, management and the control of refining process needs to investigate effective parameters in this process precisely. Therefore, because of the uncertainty and complexity in refining qualitative parameters and their relationship, artificial intelligence such as a fuzzy model (FL) and artificial neural networks (ANNs) were used in this study for modeling the behavior of Tabriz plant wastewater treatment. <br />Tabriz city as the capital of the East Azarbaijan province is the most industrialized and urbanized cities of North West of Iran (Figure 1).The sewage of Tabriz city, including industrial and domestic wastewaters, collected gravitationally and enter into the wastewater treatment plant in Tabriz city. It is located in Qaramalek District, four kilometers away in west of downtown on the south side of the Ajichay river and on the lowest part of the city at 1334 (amsl) level. The wastewater treatment plant is designed in three stages. The first phase of Tabriz wastewater treatment plant with a capacity of 612 thousand people has been established in July of (2001). Currently, due to the being incomplete of sewerage network in Tabriz city, only the first phase of this plant is exploited with around 30% of total capacity. The second and third phases are under study. Tabriz wastewater refinery with an annual average rate 1.5 cubic meters per second and peak flow in the rainy and non-rainy days are 3.8 and 2.5 cubic meters per second, respectively. Refinery process including both primary and secondary treatment stages, the physical refining is done in first step then biological treatment and finally disinfection. <br /> <br />Figure 1. Location of wastewater treatment plant of Tabriz city in Tabriz plain. <br />Material and method <br />The data used in this study to develop an artificial neural network and two fuzzy logic model (Sugeno and Mamdani FL models for evaluating the performance of wastewater treatment plant of Tabriz city is influent and effluent of refinery system. In this study, the system influent applied as input model to estimate the qualitative factors of effluent. To quality assessment in wastewater and sewage treatment plant, the parameters that are usually measured and recorded are the Temperature (T), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and pH compared in the input and Output of wastewater treatment. In this regard, the monthly values of BOD, COD, TSS, T, and pH of effluent raw wastewater and effluent treated water of treatment plant were analyzed for the 11 years 2002 to 2012 <br />At first the data set that contains 660 data from Tabriz refinery, were divided into two parts include testing (130 data) and training (530 data). A FL method consists of three main parts, fuzzification, inference engine (fuzzy rule base), and defuzzification. In the fuzzification step, the four crisp inputs change to fuzzy set for constructing the inference engine. The inference engine consists of rules. Each rule, in turn, is formed from multiple inputs and a single output. When the antecedents of fuzzy rules include more than one rule, then fuzzy operators are used to connect them. The most common fuzzy operators are AND which supported min (minimum) and prod (product), OR (maximum) and NOT. The consequences of a fuzzy rule assign an entire fuzzy set to the output through the process which is called implication. The input to the implication process is a single number given by the antecedent, and the output is a fuzzy set. Since decisions are based on the testing of all of the rules in an FIS, the rules must be combined via aggregation processes in order to make a decision. The process of transforming the aggregation result into a crisp output is termed defuzzification. The most common defuzzification methods are centroid, bisector, middle of maximum (the average of the maximum value of the output set), largest of maximum, and smallest of maximum. <br />Discussion of Results <br />The Sugeno fuzzy logic model is constructed by subtractive clustering method. The optimal cluster radius is assigned based on the minimum Root Mean Square Errors (RMSE) and MAPE are 2.71 and 8.08. Based on the optimal clustering radius, five clusters and five If-Then rules were determined using Gaussian membership functions. The average correlation coefficient of this model is 0.82. <br />Also, for constructing Mamdani fuzzy model, FCM clustering method is applied. By using minimum RMSE and MAPE that are 2.83 and 8.88 respectively, the optimal numbers of input and output clusters are assign 17. The Membership functions are Gaussian membership functions and average correlation coefficient of this model is 0.8. <br /> The perceptron network, three layers artificial neural network, includes input, hidden and output layers. Data division in train and test steps is the same as the FL models. Input layer have 5 nodes include BOD, COD, TSS, T and pH that is used as input data for predicting 3 output parameters (i.e., BOD, COD and TSS). To select the appropriate number of neurons in the hidden layer has been proposed the various methods such as trial and error and also mathematical rules. In this study, the number of neurons in the hidden layer determined 3 neurons by the trial and error method. At the first step, the network must be trained. The purpose of the learning network is achieving Minimum Absolute Percentage Errors and optimal weights of the network. Due to the high R² and lowest RMSE in the optimal structure is 5-3-3. The obtained results for test step (average RMSE= 3.63) confirm of high ability of artificial neural network in estimating parameters of wastewater treatment plant. <br />Finally, to evaluate the output of wastewater treatment plant and the results of artificial intelligence models in removing and reducing studying parameters, percentage of removal efficiency was used according to equation 1. <br /> <br /> (1) <br />This index shows indicates the isolation of each of the quality parameters of the wastewater after treatment. In this equation, <em>RE<sub>X</sub></em> is the index of removal efficiency percent of x, amount of input mass of parameters x to treatment plant and artificial intelligence, amount of output mass of the parameters x from the treatment plant which was estimated by artificial intelligence and n is the number of data for each pollutant. This equation was performed in two cases, one based on the measured data in the input and output of treatment plant and the other based on the measured data in the input and the estimates of the artificial intelligence. At the end calculated and compared the efficiency of reducing emissions separately for each pollutant for both cases. <br /> The removal efficiency of each three contaminant is close together and the TSS pollutant has maximum removal efficiency (93.74%) for three artificial intelligence models. The results represent a good performance of applied models. Consequently, the neural network and Mamdani and Sugeno fuzzy models have good accuracy in evaluating the performance of treatment. <br />Conclusions <br />Although three artificial intelligence models have acceptable results, but based on the correlation coefficient and RMSE for each of the parameters in the models, the Sugeno fuzzy model is more superior than other models. The superiority of the Sugeno fuzzy model over an artificial neural network is due to high uncertainty of wastewater treatment plant parameters. Also, calculate the percentage of contaminant removal efficiency was determined in the output treatment. The maximum removal efficiency was related to TSS pollutant that is equal to 93%. TSS values were also very close to other pollutants. Similarly, the removal efficiency of pollutants from the estimated values by fuzzy model and neural network is the same and close to the observed value due to the good performance of used models. Introduction <br />According to the shortage of water resources in the world, it seems necessary the use of refined water, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas such as Iran. The correct treatment, management and the control of refining process needs to investigate effective parameters in this process precisely. Therefore, because of the uncertainty and complexity in refining qualitative parameters and their relationship, artificial intelligence such as a fuzzy model (FL) and artificial neural networks (ANNs) were used in this study for modeling the behavior of Tabriz plant wastewater treatment. <br />Tabriz city as the capital of the East Azarbaijan province is the most industrialized and urbanized cities of North West of Iran (Figure 1).The sewage of Tabriz city, including industrial and domestic wastewaters, collected gravitationally and enter into the wastewater treatment plant in Tabriz city. It is located in Qaramalek District, four kilometers away in west of downtown on the south side of the Ajichay river and on the lowest part of the city at 1334 (amsl) level. The wastewater treatment plant is designed in three stages. The first phase of Tabriz wastewater treatment plant with a capacity of 612 thousand people has been established in July of (2001). Currently, due to the being incomplete of sewerage network in Tabriz city, only the first phase of this plant is exploited with around 30% of total capacity. The second and third phases are under study. Tabriz wastewater refinery with an annual average rate 1.5 cubic meters per second and peak flow in the rainy and non-rainy days are 3.8 and 2.5 cubic meters per second, respectively. Refinery process including both primary and secondary treatment stages, the physical refining is done in first step then biological treatment and finally disinfection. <br /> <br />Figure 1. Location of wastewater treatment plant of Tabriz city in Tabriz plain. <br />Material and method <br />The data used in this study to develop an artificial neural network and two fuzzy logic model (Sugeno and Mamdani FL models for evaluating the performance of wastewater treatment plant of Tabriz city is influent and effluent of refinery system. In this study, the system influent applied as input model to estimate the qualitative factors of effluent. To quality assessment in wastewater and sewage treatment plant, the parameters that are usually measured and recorded are the Temperature (T), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and pH compared in the input and Output of wastewater treatment. In this regard, the monthly values of BOD, COD, TSS, T, and pH of effluent raw wastewater and effluent treated water of treatment plant were analyzed for the 11 years 2002 to 2012 <br />At first the data set that contains 660 data from Tabriz refinery, were divided into two parts include testing (130 data) and training (530 data). A FL method consists of three main parts, fuzzification, inference engine (fuzzy rule base), and defuzzification. In the fuzzification step, the four crisp inputs change to fuzzy set for constructing the inference engine. The inference engine consists of rules. Each rule, in turn, is formed from multiple inputs and a single output. When the antecedents of fuzzy rules include more than one rule, then fuzzy operators are used to connect them. The most common fuzzy operators are AND which supported min (minimum) and prod (product), OR (maximum) and NOT. The consequences of a fuzzy rule assign an entire fuzzy set to the output through the process which is called implication. The input to the implication process is a single number given by the antecedent, and the output is a fuzzy set. Since decisions are based on the testing of all of the rules in an FIS, the rules must be combined via aggregation processes in order to make a decision. The process of transforming the aggregation result into a crisp output is termed defuzzification. The most common defuzzification methods are centroid, bisector, middle of maximum (the average of the maximum value of the output set), largest of maximum, and smallest of maximum. <br />Discussion of Results <br />The Sugeno fuzzy logic model is constructed by subtractive clustering method. The optimal cluster radius is assigned based on the minimum Root Mean Square Errors (RMSE) and MAPE are 2.71 and 8.08. Based on the optimal clustering radius, five clusters and five If-Then rules were determined using Gaussian membership functions. The average correlation coefficient of this model is 0.82. <br />Also, for constructing Mamdani fuzzy model, FCM clustering method is applied. By using minimum RMSE and MAPE that are 2.83 and 8.88 respectively, the optimal numbers of input and output clusters are assign 17. The Membership functions are Gaussian membership functions and average correlation coefficient of this model is 0.8. <br /> The perceptron network, three layers artificial neural network, includes input, hidden and output layers. Data division in train and test steps is the same as the FL models. Input layer have 5 nodes include BOD, COD, TSS, T and pH that is used as input data for predicting 3 output parameters (i.e., BOD, COD and TSS). To select the appropriate number of neurons in the hidden layer has been proposed the various methods such as trial and error and also mathematical rules. In this study, the number of neurons in the hidden layer determined 3 neurons by the trial and error method. At the first step, the network must be trained. The purpose of the learning network is achieving Minimum Absolute Percentage Errors and optimal weights of the network. Due to the high R² and lowest RMSE in the optimal structure is 5-3-3. The obtained results for test step (average RMSE= 3.63) confirm of high ability of artificial neural network in estimating parameters of wastewater treatment plant. <br />Finally, to evaluate the output of wastewater treatment plant and the results of artificial intelligence models in removing and reducing studying parameters, percentage of removal efficiency was used according to equation 1. <br /> <br /> (1) <br />This index shows indicates the isolation of each of the quality parameters of the wastewater after treatment. In this equation, <em>RE<sub>X</sub></em> is the index of removal efficiency percent of x, amount of input mass of parameters x to treatment plant and artificial intelligence, amount of output mass of the parameters x from the treatment plant which was estimated by artificial intelligence and n is the number of data for each pollutant. This equation was performed in two cases, one based on the measured data in the input and output of treatment plant and the other based on the measured data in the input and the estimates of the artificial intelligence. At the end calculated and compared the efficiency of reducing emissions separately for each pollutant for both cases. <br /> The removal efficiency of each three contaminant is close together and the TSS pollutant has maximum removal efficiency (93.74%) for three artificial intelligence models. The results represent a good performance of applied models. Consequently, the neural network and Mamdani and Sugeno fuzzy models have good accuracy in evaluating the performance of treatment. <br />Conclusions <br />Although three artificial intelligence models have acceptable results, but based on the correlation coefficient and RMSE for each of the parameters in the models, the Sugeno fuzzy model is more superior than other models. The superiority of the Sugeno fuzzy model over an artificial neural network is due to high uncertainty of wastewater treatment plant parameters. Also, calculate the percentage of contaminant removal efficiency was determined in the output treatment. The maximum removal efficiency was related to TSS pollutant that is equal to 93%. TSS values were also very close to other pollutants. Similarly, the removal efficiency of pollutants from the estimated values by fuzzy model and neural network is the same and close to the observed value due to the good performance of used models. https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_52999_bfb69dd794554ad27878276e252ccbf6.pdfدانشگاه تهرانJournal of Environmental Studies1025-862040420141222Numerical simulation of discharging the wastewater of Chalous city into the Caspian Sea using by an outfallNumerical simulation of discharging the wastewater of Chalous city into the Caspian Sea using by an outfall8458605300210.22059/jes.2014.53002FASinaHosseinifardM.Sc. student of coastal environment engineering, graduate faculty of environment, University of Tehran, Iran.NasserHajizadeh-zakerAssociate Professor of Civil Engineering, graduate faculty of environment, University of Tehran, Iran0000-0003-0644-2099Journal Article20131231Introduction
Coastal towns have specific positions due to the possible utilization of sea and attraction tourists. Finding useful methods of sewage disposal at lower costs and higher efficiency and also expandable in terms of the capacity of coastal towns is very important. Releasing residential sewage of Chalous city into the Caspian Sea makes marine environment a source of raw wastewater and the receiving water body affected by entering these contaminants.
The contaminants cause to pollute fishes, sediments and coastal waters and then will transmitted to humans through the consumption of contaminated marine organisms and pathogens or by swimming.
Many of researchers and experts believe that secondary treatment of wastewater, needs a lot of costs and energy and sludge disposal and production should be continuously monitored. But with proper planning of drainage system for the sea, we can discharge large amounts of sewage into sea with no need to treatment maintenance. Oceans, seas and Great Lakes have high self-purification capacity to absorb sewer of coastal towns.
There are many types of wastewater discharging into the sea include directly discharges onto the beach, discharges with a short outfall with likely contamination of recreational waters and discharge with an effective outfall designed so that the sewage is efficiently diluted and dispersed and does not pollute recreational areas.
Dilution of the wastewater into the sea have three-phase including near-field, far-field and long-term flushing. Generally, the near and far field dilution mechanism strictly disagree that they act separately as a independent treatment service. The outfall system typically consists of tunnel or pipeline, diffuser and ports on the diffuser; in this system the basis is the dilution of wastewater without any problem for the marine environment. Prediction of near field mixing requires understanding of the dynamics of jets, plumes and buoyant jets; a jet is a flow driven by the source momentum flux only, a plume is driven by the source buoyancy flux only and a buoyant jet is driven by both momentum and buoyancy fluxes. Discharges from an outfall diffuser have both momentum and buoyancy and are therefore buoyant jets, but the buoyancy flux is usually dominant and ocean outfall discharges can often be approximated as plumes.
In this study, the use of outfall as sewage disposing system in the city of Chalous that is located near the southern coast of the Caspian sea, has been assessed in term of environmental.
Materials and methods
Mathematical models are now widely used to predict the fate and transport of ocean discharges. This is not possible to simulate these types of discharges with one overall omnibus model, because of the very wide range of lengths and times scales for various mixing processes. Therefore linked sub-models of the various phases are usually used.
In general, assumptions used in modeling the dispersion and dilution of waste water include the incompressibility of flow, the pressure is hydrostatic and molecular scattering is ignored.
The theory of mixing zone and near-field models are different by far-field models and includes the length scale, entrainment and CFD models. For far-field the hydrodynamic models have been developed in past few decades and are being used increasingly to predict the fate and transport of marine discharges.
There are three basic equations for the discharge of sewage into the sea through an outfall include: mass flux, momentum flux and buoyancy flux that using dimensional analysis leads to considerable analytical simplification and to useful equations for predicting plume behavior and dilution.
One of the common near-field models is CORMIX that is provided for analyzing the discharge of various types of discharge to marine waters. CORMIX is a comprehensive software system for the analysis, prediction, and design of outfall mixing zones resulting from discharge of aqueous pollutants into diverse water bodies. It contains mathematical models of point source discharge mixing within an intelligent computer-aided-design (CAD) interface. Its focus is environmental impact assessment and regulatory management. CORMIX has been developed under several cooperative funding agreements between U.S. EPA, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Cornell University, Oregon Graduate Institute (OGI), University of Karlsruhe, Portland State University, and MixZon Inc. during the period of 1985-2007. The major emphasis of the CORMIX system is on the geometry and dilution characteristics of the initial mixing zone including compliance with regulatory constraints as well as predicting the behavior of the discharge plume at larger distances. However, this system also has capabilities to predict the wastewater over long distances in the far-field. CORMIX contains three core hydrodynamic simulation models includes: Simulation models for single port discharges (CORMIX1), Simulation models for submerged multiport diffusers (CORMIX2) and Simulation models for buoyant surface discharges (CORMIX3). In this paper the CORMIX2 has been used for predicting and modeling the discharges from an outfall diffuser; the following items must be respected in the design of a multi-port diffuser: port and nozzle diameters (not too large to cause the sea water to enter diffuser and not too small that waste energy and increase pumping costs), nozzles angle to the seabed in a way to flow horizontally into the water body because of optimal dilution and the outlet port shape of nozzles be such that not to cause friction in the direction of wastewater disposal and preferably be circular.
Factors of water contamination are nutrients, bacteria and pathogens, toxic, chemical, organic, heavy metals and suspended solids. Pathogens are the most important factor to design the outfall and can be controlled by initial mixing, diffusion and destruction by sunlight.
California ocean plan is an instruction to a successful discharge of sewage to marine waters without complications for the environment. This plan limits the level of water quality such as bacterial, chemical and physical properties and also considers some limitation for sewage.
The most important indicator bacterium in sea water and natatorium is Enterococcus. According to the California Ocean Plan, USEPA limited levels of coliform bacteria Enterococcus for the 30-day geometric mean to 35 units per 100 ml. Also maximum of coliform units in the discharged wastewater to the sea is limited to 1000 units per 100 ml.
Discharges near environmentally sensitive areas such as coral reefs or shell fishing beds should be avoided. If the diffuser cause rapid dilution and dispersion of the effluent and is positioned so the waste field transport to critical areas is minimized, only the preliminary wastewater treatment such as milliscreening may be needed. To choose a convenient location for an outfall, the various parameters are effective includes water depth and the slope of the seabed, type and direction of currents, swim areas, regional water quality, concentration of population and entry of rivers water into the sea; So given the above parameters, three routes along the coast of the Chalous city proposed and investigated and the proper route and discharge depth chosen during a process of trial and error.
The worst dilution conditions such as no currents and strongest density stratification must be considered for designing an outfall. Therefore to obtain the worst dilution case, the model is run for different seasons. Thus, outfall designing takes place based on specifications of the summer season that currents are minimal and the density difference is the highest value.
Results
Diffuser geometrical design is plotted using CorSpy that is one of the CORMIX post processing tools. The diffuser has the length of 50 meters with eleven ports that each port has a T-shaped nozzle with 25 cm height and 50 cm from the seabed. Due to strong density stratification of sea in the summer, the discharged sewage doesn’t reach to surface water and becomes stuck in the terminal layers. The distance between the source of discharge and where the plum meets bank is about 6500 meters and due to average currents that is 0.058 meters per seconds, the time of reaching to bank is about 31 hours that is more than 24 hours considered and there is enough time to kill bacteria. According to the results of CORMIX the bacteria reach certain standards within regulatory mixing zone and there are no worries about natatorium area that is the thousands of meters away.
Because of poor density stratification of sea in winter, the discharged sewage reaches to surface water and therefore the 100 value of dilution must be checked at that water level; By CORMIX modeling the distance between discharging sewage and where it reaches to surface level is about 120 meters and the dilution value of is 250.
According to the results of modeling, discharged wastewater meets the bank with a distance about 10 to 25 kilometers from the source with different ambient currents that is adjacent to residential and swimming areas but due to its arrival time is more than 24 hours, so there is enough time to kill bacteria.
The model also was tested for the reversal ambient current that is usually occurs on cold days and the plum meets the bank with a distance about 10 to 20 kilometers from the discharging source with different ambient currents. The results of the modeling in terms of average monthly current in summer and winter show that the value of plum dilution when it reaches to water surface in winter and the time of meeting plum to bank from the discharging source in summer, are two main parameters for designing of Chalous city outfall.
Discussion of Conclusions
The project goal was to design an efficient outfall that have features such as proper drainage location, sufficient diffuser length, proper discharge depth, safety purposes, economic, and trustworthiness of the effects of biological, chemical and physical. The outfall was designed in the worst environmental case modeling with almost no currents and maximum density stratification that occurs in summer and to ensure the proper functioning of the outfall, other conditions were also modeled.
Desired location for installing outfall is chosen according to the parameters like beach slope for decreasing outfall pipe length, flows and wastewater fate in the far field so as not to reach swimming and tourist areas and pollution from streams and existing municipal waste.
The results of the model show that in the first movement, sewage discharge is diluted more than 100 times in a few minutes and within 10 meters of the discharge location, all pollutants comply with environmental conditions and adherences to the strictest standards. This amount of dilution is more than a lot of secondary treatments ability.
The major environmental advantages of the project are protect groundwater from contamination by sewage, eliminating the direct discharge of wastewater into the Caspian Sea and thus improve the quality of sea water, eliminating the harmful effects caused by sewage sludge dumping and reduce energy consumption and thus produce less heat and pollution.
The results of this study indicated that the use of marine outfall in the city of Chalous with some considerations such as preliminary treatment prior to discharge is desired option. In addition, the results indicated that outfall not only eliminates the environmental problems of wastewater disposing, but it is the most economical method of sewage disposal.Introduction
Coastal towns have specific positions due to the possible utilization of sea and attraction tourists. Finding useful methods of sewage disposal at lower costs and higher efficiency and also expandable in terms of the capacity of coastal towns is very important. Releasing residential sewage of Chalous city into the Caspian Sea makes marine environment a source of raw wastewater and the receiving water body affected by entering these contaminants.
The contaminants cause to pollute fishes, sediments and coastal waters and then will transmitted to humans through the consumption of contaminated marine organisms and pathogens or by swimming.
Many of researchers and experts believe that secondary treatment of wastewater, needs a lot of costs and energy and sludge disposal and production should be continuously monitored. But with proper planning of drainage system for the sea, we can discharge large amounts of sewage into sea with no need to treatment maintenance. Oceans, seas and Great Lakes have high self-purification capacity to absorb sewer of coastal towns.
There are many types of wastewater discharging into the sea include directly discharges onto the beach, discharges with a short outfall with likely contamination of recreational waters and discharge with an effective outfall designed so that the sewage is efficiently diluted and dispersed and does not pollute recreational areas.
Dilution of the wastewater into the sea have three-phase including near-field, far-field and long-term flushing. Generally, the near and far field dilution mechanism strictly disagree that they act separately as a independent treatment service. The outfall system typically consists of tunnel or pipeline, diffuser and ports on the diffuser; in this system the basis is the dilution of wastewater without any problem for the marine environment. Prediction of near field mixing requires understanding of the dynamics of jets, plumes and buoyant jets; a jet is a flow driven by the source momentum flux only, a plume is driven by the source buoyancy flux only and a buoyant jet is driven by both momentum and buoyancy fluxes. Discharges from an outfall diffuser have both momentum and buoyancy and are therefore buoyant jets, but the buoyancy flux is usually dominant and ocean outfall discharges can often be approximated as plumes.
In this study, the use of outfall as sewage disposing system in the city of Chalous that is located near the southern coast of the Caspian sea, has been assessed in term of environmental.
Materials and methods
Mathematical models are now widely used to predict the fate and transport of ocean discharges. This is not possible to simulate these types of discharges with one overall omnibus model, because of the very wide range of lengths and times scales for various mixing processes. Therefore linked sub-models of the various phases are usually used.
In general, assumptions used in modeling the dispersion and dilution of waste water include the incompressibility of flow, the pressure is hydrostatic and molecular scattering is ignored.
The theory of mixing zone and near-field models are different by far-field models and includes the length scale, entrainment and CFD models. For far-field the hydrodynamic models have been developed in past few decades and are being used increasingly to predict the fate and transport of marine discharges.
There are three basic equations for the discharge of sewage into the sea through an outfall include: mass flux, momentum flux and buoyancy flux that using dimensional analysis leads to considerable analytical simplification and to useful equations for predicting plume behavior and dilution.
One of the common near-field models is CORMIX that is provided for analyzing the discharge of various types of discharge to marine waters. CORMIX is a comprehensive software system for the analysis, prediction, and design of outfall mixing zones resulting from discharge of aqueous pollutants into diverse water bodies. It contains mathematical models of point source discharge mixing within an intelligent computer-aided-design (CAD) interface. Its focus is environmental impact assessment and regulatory management. CORMIX has been developed under several cooperative funding agreements between U.S. EPA, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Cornell University, Oregon Graduate Institute (OGI), University of Karlsruhe, Portland State University, and MixZon Inc. during the period of 1985-2007. The major emphasis of the CORMIX system is on the geometry and dilution characteristics of the initial mixing zone including compliance with regulatory constraints as well as predicting the behavior of the discharge plume at larger distances. However, this system also has capabilities to predict the wastewater over long distances in the far-field. CORMIX contains three core hydrodynamic simulation models includes: Simulation models for single port discharges (CORMIX1), Simulation models for submerged multiport diffusers (CORMIX2) and Simulation models for buoyant surface discharges (CORMIX3). In this paper the CORMIX2 has been used for predicting and modeling the discharges from an outfall diffuser; the following items must be respected in the design of a multi-port diffuser: port and nozzle diameters (not too large to cause the sea water to enter diffuser and not too small that waste energy and increase pumping costs), nozzles angle to the seabed in a way to flow horizontally into the water body because of optimal dilution and the outlet port shape of nozzles be such that not to cause friction in the direction of wastewater disposal and preferably be circular.
Factors of water contamination are nutrients, bacteria and pathogens, toxic, chemical, organic, heavy metals and suspended solids. Pathogens are the most important factor to design the outfall and can be controlled by initial mixing, diffusion and destruction by sunlight.
California ocean plan is an instruction to a successful discharge of sewage to marine waters without complications for the environment. This plan limits the level of water quality such as bacterial, chemical and physical properties and also considers some limitation for sewage.
The most important indicator bacterium in sea water and natatorium is Enterococcus. According to the California Ocean Plan, USEPA limited levels of coliform bacteria Enterococcus for the 30-day geometric mean to 35 units per 100 ml. Also maximum of coliform units in the discharged wastewater to the sea is limited to 1000 units per 100 ml.
Discharges near environmentally sensitive areas such as coral reefs or shell fishing beds should be avoided. If the diffuser cause rapid dilution and dispersion of the effluent and is positioned so the waste field transport to critical areas is minimized, only the preliminary wastewater treatment such as milliscreening may be needed. To choose a convenient location for an outfall, the various parameters are effective includes water depth and the slope of the seabed, type and direction of currents, swim areas, regional water quality, concentration of population and entry of rivers water into the sea; So given the above parameters, three routes along the coast of the Chalous city proposed and investigated and the proper route and discharge depth chosen during a process of trial and error.
The worst dilution conditions such as no currents and strongest density stratification must be considered for designing an outfall. Therefore to obtain the worst dilution case, the model is run for different seasons. Thus, outfall designing takes place based on specifications of the summer season that currents are minimal and the density difference is the highest value.
Results
Diffuser geometrical design is plotted using CorSpy that is one of the CORMIX post processing tools. The diffuser has the length of 50 meters with eleven ports that each port has a T-shaped nozzle with 25 cm height and 50 cm from the seabed. Due to strong density stratification of sea in the summer, the discharged sewage doesn’t reach to surface water and becomes stuck in the terminal layers. The distance between the source of discharge and where the plum meets bank is about 6500 meters and due to average currents that is 0.058 meters per seconds, the time of reaching to bank is about 31 hours that is more than 24 hours considered and there is enough time to kill bacteria. According to the results of CORMIX the bacteria reach certain standards within regulatory mixing zone and there are no worries about natatorium area that is the thousands of meters away.
Because of poor density stratification of sea in winter, the discharged sewage reaches to surface water and therefore the 100 value of dilution must be checked at that water level; By CORMIX modeling the distance between discharging sewage and where it reaches to surface level is about 120 meters and the dilution value of is 250.
According to the results of modeling, discharged wastewater meets the bank with a distance about 10 to 25 kilometers from the source with different ambient currents that is adjacent to residential and swimming areas but due to its arrival time is more than 24 hours, so there is enough time to kill bacteria.
The model also was tested for the reversal ambient current that is usually occurs on cold days and the plum meets the bank with a distance about 10 to 20 kilometers from the discharging source with different ambient currents. The results of the modeling in terms of average monthly current in summer and winter show that the value of plum dilution when it reaches to water surface in winter and the time of meeting plum to bank from the discharging source in summer, are two main parameters for designing of Chalous city outfall.
Discussion of Conclusions
The project goal was to design an efficient outfall that have features such as proper drainage location, sufficient diffuser length, proper discharge depth, safety purposes, economic, and trustworthiness of the effects of biological, chemical and physical. The outfall was designed in the worst environmental case modeling with almost no currents and maximum density stratification that occurs in summer and to ensure the proper functioning of the outfall, other conditions were also modeled.
Desired location for installing outfall is chosen according to the parameters like beach slope for decreasing outfall pipe length, flows and wastewater fate in the far field so as not to reach swimming and tourist areas and pollution from streams and existing municipal waste.
The results of the model show that in the first movement, sewage discharge is diluted more than 100 times in a few minutes and within 10 meters of the discharge location, all pollutants comply with environmental conditions and adherences to the strictest standards. This amount of dilution is more than a lot of secondary treatments ability.
The major environmental advantages of the project are protect groundwater from contamination by sewage, eliminating the direct discharge of wastewater into the Caspian Sea and thus improve the quality of sea water, eliminating the harmful effects caused by sewage sludge dumping and reduce energy consumption and thus produce less heat and pollution.
The results of this study indicated that the use of marine outfall in the city of Chalous with some considerations such as preliminary treatment prior to discharge is desired option. In addition, the results indicated that outfall not only eliminates the environmental problems of wastewater disposing, but it is the most economical method of sewage disposal.https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_53002_8326fb859017134725f56aca797400ac.pdfدانشگاه تهرانJournal of Environmental Studies1025-862040420141222Coastal Solid Waste Management in Mazandaran ProvinceCoastal Solid Waste Management in Mazandaran Province8618735300310.22059/jes.2014.53003FAMohammad AliAbduliProfessor, Department of Environment, University of Tehran, mabdoli@ut.ac.ir.0000-0002-0158-4891NaserMehrdadiProfessor, Department of Environment, University of Tehran0000-0002-1608-2405MojtabaRezazadehPh.D. Student of Environmental Engineering, Department of Environment,University of Tehran,Journal Article20140312 <br />Introduction <br />Due to the proximity to the sea, beaches always attracted tourists. On the other hand the coastal ecosystems are the most important and sensitive dual nature (land, naval), and variety of animal species are within themselves. <br />The most important (and also longest) coastal area in Iran are Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in south with about 2530km long and Caspian Sea in north with about 922km long. Coastal pollution in developing country cause various difficulties for these sensitive ecosystem. For example In Mahashtera Seashore especially in its Mangrove forests different kind of municipal and industrial waste scattered and large area is covered by plastic bags. <br />Solid waste management in coastal line in the most significant issue in waste management in coastal line is the first and most important factor in maintaining the health of the natural environment. <br />In recent years, in Istanbul, a waste management system with transfer station, sanitary landfill sites and methane recovery, which led to many developments, have been implemented. It is predicted that potential of renewable energy from landfill sites can be up to 160 Mw over 10 years. <br />One of the most substantial items in coastal line is the guidelines. It can be said that without enough regulations solid waste management system cannot be performed properly. In this paper the current situation of the waste management in Mazandaran province is assessed and the substantial guidelines for waste management are suggested. Consequently, practical suggestions are offered. <br /> <br /> <br />Matherials & Methods <br /> <br />Mazandaran province with 23,756 square kilometers occupies 4/1% of the total area of the country. The total population of the province in 1390 is 3,073,943 people, with one quarter of the total population of the country and tourists in each year which is about 12 million people. <br /> In order to guidelines and regulation the current status of waste management in coastal line should be reviewed. Thorough examination of the quantity and quality of generated waste at the study area a clear picture of the current situation of waste management and the strengths and weaknesses of existing systems can be evaluated. Therefore, in this study one kilometer radius of the study area along the coastal province were selected and evaluated .The of the latest statistics and information of various organizations such as the recycling of waste management coastal province, municipality and environment department of the coastal towns of the province Mazandaran were collected and investigated. For more accuracy, Fields were visited, several expertise were interviewed and also a survey was conducted. The main structure of proposed guideline was obtained by reviewing guidelines an instruction of waste management system in developed countries. At last comparative studies were done considering current condition of area, and proposed guideline was obtained. <br /> <br />Discussion of Results <br /> <br />Daily waste production in coastal line is 794 ton. Maximum weight is for Babolsar and minimum one is for sorkh rood. Daily per capita waste is about 1/97 kg/d which has a significant deviation with the average per capita (750 kg/d) in Iran which is due to the tourism industry. Degradable material is 77.43 percent, which is relatively high due to the amount of the fresh and non-processed material. Approximately 22.57% of the total wastes are dry matters that can be used to reduce 20 percent of the total waste using source reduction strategy. <br />Daily waste collection and disposal is carried out in the coastal line. The results of questionnaires shows that in all cities collecting is done by the municipalities except NOSHAHR which 20 percent of the waste is gathered by private sector and 80 percent of the remaining waste is collected by the municipalities. <br />In all of these cities waste is recycled and separated by municipalities. In all cities waste separation by municipalities’ workers have been seen during collection. But it doesn’t mean that all the workers do the waste separation. In addition some homeless persons separate the waste in cities or at disposal sites to find cardboard, paper, glasses or plastics.The results from the questionnaire show that 29 percent of urban waste separation are done at transfer stations and the 71% remaining is done in the landfill. Pets and plastic waste in all cities are isolated. Paper and metal in 93% and glasses in 87% of cities are isolated. <br />As it can be seen in the following table1, In most of coastal cities of Mazandaran province waste disposal method is Stockpile and shallow burial, and leachate treatment system is not existed. <br /> <br />Table1:waste dispose situation in coastal cities of Mazandaran(2012) <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />City Name <br /> <br /> <br />Area <br />(hectare) <br /> <br /> <br />Land use <br />Around the Disposal site <br /> <br /> <br />Distance to the nearest City(km) <br /> <br /> <br />Disposal Method <br /> <br /> <br />leachate Disposal location <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Babolsar <br /> <br />Fereydonkenar <br /> <br />Mahmodabad <br /> <br />Nor <br /> <br /> <br />Noshahr <br /> <br /> <br />Chalos <br /> <br /> <br />Abasabad <br /> <br /> <br />Kelarabad <br /> <br /> <br />Tonekabon <br /> <br /> <br />Ramsar <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />5 <br /> <br />2 <br /> <br />0.5 <br /> <br />8 <br /> <br /> <br />6.5 <br /> <br /> <br />7 <br /> <br /> <br />3 <br /> <br /> <br />1 <br /> <br /> <br />8 <br /> <br /> <br />5 <br /> <br /> <br />Beach, Residential <br /> <br />Beach, Residential <br /> <br />Beach ,Residential <br /> <br />Forest <br /> <br /> <br />Forest <br /> <br /> <br />Forest <br /> <br /> <br />Forest <br /> <br /> <br />Urban, farming <br /> <br /> <br />Forest <br /> <br /> <br />Forest <br /> <br /> <br />0 <br /> <br />0 <br /> <br />0 <br /> <br />16 <br /> <br /> <br />1/6 <br /> <br /> <br />2 <br /> <br /> <br />4/7 <br /> <br /> <br />0 <br /> <br />4/4 <br /> <br /> <br />12 <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Stockpile,Trenches <br /> <br />Stockpile, Burning <br /> <br />Transfer to Amol city <br /> <br />Stockpile, shallow burial <br />Stockpile, shallow burial <br />Stockpile, shallow burial <br /> <br />Stockpile, release in a valley <br />Stockpile, shallow burial <br />Stockpile, Composting <br /> <br /> <br />Stockpile, release in a valley <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Caspian Sea <br /> <br />Caspian Sea <br /> <br />- <br /> <br />Forest and river <br /> <br /> <br />Forest and river <br /> <br /> <br />Forest and river <br /> <br /> <br />Forest <br /> <br /> <br />leaking to ground <br /> <br /> <br />Forest and river <br /> <br /> <br />Forest <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />In developed countries, rules and instruction of solid waste management are updated and published regularly but the main problem is in application of these rules. Solid waste management rules covers a wide range of concerns in waste managing. These rules contains necessary criteria for collecting, transporting and dispose as well as burying or incinerating of wastes. These rules also consider design and operation of landfills and incinerators. In addition they have a special focus on minimizing plastic wastes and encourage recycling. <br />Any rules or guideline must be based on culture, customs, commercial and economic activity of that society, so it can reach to its final goal which is implantation. Without considering this fact and simply using laws of other countries, will cause various problems or difficulties for the authorities. <br />With to basic assumption in creating rules or instruction, Sources of pollution can be reduced. <br />First, all the process must have a comprehensive and coordinated approach that include all parts. It also should consider interacts between soil, water and air. Any effort to protect an environmental section without studying its impact to other parts would be a failure and it would be wrong both scientifically and morally. <br />Second, although more scientific information is needed, the current lack of information shouldn’t be a setback in start of waste management. <br />In general, structure of the proposed regulations are as follows: <br />- Purpose <br />- Definitions <br />- Authority management (based on Waste Management Law in Iran) <br />- Executive Items <br />conclusion <br /> The results showed that the non-practical management of waste in the coastal strip , causes environmental damages in this area. Increase piled waste sites, distribution and poor performance of function elements such as source reduction causes environmental degradation in the region. <br />The waste of ports, industrial zones and industries located in the coastal cities usually are transferred to disposal area of the near cities. Industrial wastes containing dangerous substances are not separated from other wastes and discharged into municipal landfill. With regard to waste disposal sites adjacent to rivers, forests, sea and high rainy area, considerable amounts of waste and leachate goes to the surface waters and provides extensive water resources contamination. <br />One of the most substantial items in coastal line is the guidelines. It can be said that without enough regulations solid waste management system cannot be performed properly. In developed countries, waste disposal in open dumping site was usual, until the waste management regulations in these countries were published. Due to the different needs, specific conditions to assess the current status of coastal area and the experiences of developed countries, waste management instruction in coastal area of mazandaran province was written to protect the environment from harmful effects of waste accumulation. features and framework of this instruction is illustrated briefly in this article. <br />Based on the amount of waste produced, urban distribution, lack of extensive road network and topography of the region, four incineration plants are suggested instead of a centralized plant. <br />Fereidonkenar and Babolsar based on Babolsar, with plant capacity of 200 tons per day; Mahmoudabad, Noor and Royan based on Noor, with plant capacity of 100 tons per day; Noshahr, Chalus, Hachirod and Salmanshahr based on Chalus, with plant capacity of 200 tons per day and Aasabad, Tonekabon, Shyrod, Ktalm and Sadat mahale and Ramsar based on Tonekabon, with plant capacity of 200 tons per day, must be constructed. <br />It is predicted that future challenges are waste reduction, making an integrated system for waste collection and disposal, using 3r technology, and converting waste to energy. <br />Introduction <br />Due to the proximity to the sea, beaches always attracted tourists. On the other hand the coastal ecosystems are the most important and sensitive dual nature (land, naval), and variety of animal species are within themselves. <br />The most important (and also longest) coastal area in Iran are Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in south with about 2530km long and Caspian Sea in north with about 922km long. Coastal pollution in developing country cause various difficulties for these sensitive ecosystem. For example In Mahashtera Seashore especially in its Mangrove forests different kind of municipal and industrial waste scattered and large area is covered by plastic bags. <br />Solid waste management in coastal line in the most significant issue in waste management in coastal line is the first and most important factor in maintaining the health of the natural environment. <br />In recent years, in Istanbul, a waste management system with transfer station, sanitary landfill sites and methane recovery, which led to many developments, have been implemented. It is predicted that potential of renewable energy from landfill sites can be up to 160 Mw over 10 years. <br />One of the most substantial items in coastal line is the guidelines. It can be said that without enough regulations solid waste management system cannot be performed properly. In this paper the current situation of the waste management in Mazandaran province is assessed and the substantial guidelines for waste management are suggested. Consequently, practical suggestions are offered. <br /> <br /> <br />Matherials & Methods <br /> <br />Mazandaran province with 23,756 square kilometers occupies 4/1% of the total area of the country. The total population of the province in 1390 is 3,073,943 people, with one quarter of the total population of the country and tourists in each year which is about 12 million people. <br /> In order to guidelines and regulation the current status of waste management in coastal line should be reviewed. Thorough examination of the quantity and quality of generated waste at the study area a clear picture of the current situation of waste management and the strengths and weaknesses of existing systems can be evaluated. Therefore, in this study one kilometer radius of the study area along the coastal province were selected and evaluated .The of the latest statistics and information of various organizations such as the recycling of waste management coastal province, municipality and environment department of the coastal towns of the province Mazandaran were collected and investigated. For more accuracy, Fields were visited, several expertise were interviewed and also a survey was conducted. The main structure of proposed guideline was obtained by reviewing guidelines an instruction of waste management system in developed countries. At last comparative studies were done considering current condition of area, and proposed guideline was obtained. <br /> <br />Discussion of Results <br /> <br />Daily waste production in coastal line is 794 ton. Maximum weight is for Babolsar and minimum one is for sorkh rood. Daily per capita waste is about 1/97 kg/d which has a significant deviation with the average per capita (750 kg/d) in Iran which is due to the tourism industry. Degradable material is 77.43 percent, which is relatively high due to the amount of the fresh and non-processed material. Approximately 22.57% of the total wastes are dry matters that can be used to reduce 20 percent of the total waste using source reduction strategy. <br />Daily waste collection and disposal is carried out in the coastal line. The results of questionnaires shows that in all cities collecting is done by the municipalities except NOSHAHR which 20 percent of the waste is gathered by private sector and 80 percent of the remaining waste is collected by the municipalities. <br />In all of these cities waste is recycled and separated by municipalities. In all cities waste separation by municipalities’ workers have been seen during collection. But it doesn’t mean that all the workers do the waste separation. In addition some homeless persons separate the waste in cities or at disposal sites to find cardboard, paper, glasses or plastics.The results from the questionnaire show that 29 percent of urban waste separation are done at transfer stations and the 71% remaining is done in the landfill. Pets and plastic waste in all cities are isolated. Paper and metal in 93% and glasses in 87% of cities are isolated. <br />As it can be seen in the following table1, In most of coastal cities of Mazandaran province waste disposal method is Stockpile and shallow burial, and leachate treatment system is not existed. <br /> <br />Table1:waste dispose situation in coastal cities of Mazandaran(2012) <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />City Name <br /> <br /> <br />Area <br />(hectare) <br /> <br /> <br />Land use <br />Around the Disposal site <br /> <br /> <br />Distance to the nearest City(km) <br /> <br /> <br />Disposal Method <br /> <br /> <br />leachate Disposal location <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Babolsar <br /> <br />Fereydonkenar <br /> <br />Mahmodabad <br /> <br />Nor <br /> <br /> <br />Noshahr <br /> <br /> <br />Chalos <br /> <br /> <br />Abasabad <br /> <br /> <br />Kelarabad <br /> <br /> <br />Tonekabon <br /> <br /> <br />Ramsar <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />5 <br /> <br />2 <br /> <br />0.5 <br /> <br />8 <br /> <br /> <br />6.5 <br /> <br /> <br />7 <br /> <br /> <br />3 <br /> <br /> <br />1 <br /> <br /> <br />8 <br /> <br /> <br />5 <br /> <br /> <br />Beach, Residential <br /> <br />Beach, Residential <br /> <br />Beach ,Residential <br /> <br />Forest <br /> <br /> <br />Forest <br /> <br /> <br />Forest <br /> <br /> <br />Forest <br /> <br /> <br />Urban, farming <br /> <br /> <br />Forest <br /> <br /> <br />Forest <br /> <br /> <br />0 <br /> <br />0 <br /> <br />0 <br /> <br />16 <br /> <br /> <br />1/6 <br /> <br /> <br />2 <br /> <br /> <br />4/7 <br /> <br /> <br />0 <br /> <br />4/4 <br /> <br /> <br />12 <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Stockpile,Trenches <br /> <br />Stockpile, Burning <br /> <br />Transfer to Amol city <br /> <br />Stockpile, shallow burial <br />Stockpile, shallow burial <br />Stockpile, shallow burial <br /> <br />Stockpile, release in a valley <br />Stockpile, shallow burial <br />Stockpile, Composting <br /> <br /> <br />Stockpile, release in a valley <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Caspian Sea <br /> <br />Caspian Sea <br /> <br />- <br /> <br />Forest and river <br /> <br /> <br />Forest and river <br /> <br /> <br />Forest and river <br /> <br /> <br />Forest <br /> <br /> <br />leaking to ground <br /> <br /> <br />Forest and river <br /> <br /> <br />Forest <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />In developed countries, rules and instruction of solid waste management are updated and published regularly but the main problem is in application of these rules. Solid waste management rules covers a wide range of concerns in waste managing. These rules contains necessary criteria for collecting, transporting and dispose as well as burying or incinerating of wastes. These rules also consider design and operation of landfills and incinerators. In addition they have a special focus on minimizing plastic wastes and encourage recycling. <br />Any rules or guideline must be based on culture, customs, commercial and economic activity of that society, so it can reach to its final goal which is implantation. Without considering this fact and simply using laws of other countries, will cause various problems or difficulties for the authorities. <br />With to basic assumption in creating rules or instruction, Sources of pollution can be reduced. <br />First, all the process must have a comprehensive and coordinated approach that include all parts. It also should consider interacts between soil, water and air. Any effort to protect an environmental section without studying its impact to other parts would be a failure and it would be wrong both scientifically and morally. <br />Second, although more scientific information is needed, the current lack of information shouldn’t be a setback in start of waste management. <br />In general, structure of the proposed regulations are as follows: <br />- Purpose <br />- Definitions <br />- Authority management (based on Waste Management Law in Iran) <br />- Executive Items <br />conclusion <br /> The results showed that the non-practical management of waste in the coastal strip , causes environmental damages in this area. Increase piled waste sites, distribution and poor performance of function elements such as source reduction causes environmental degradation in the region. <br />The waste of ports, industrial zones and industries located in the coastal cities usually are transferred to disposal area of the near cities. Industrial wastes containing dangerous substances are not separated from other wastes and discharged into municipal landfill. With regard to waste disposal sites adjacent to rivers, forests, sea and high rainy area, considerable amounts of waste and leachate goes to the surface waters and provides extensive water resources contamination. <br />One of the most substantial items in coastal line is the guidelines. It can be said that without enough regulations solid waste management system cannot be performed properly. In developed countries, waste disposal in open dumping site was usual, until the waste management regulations in these countries were published. Due to the different needs, specific conditions to assess the current status of coastal area and the experiences of developed countries, waste management instruction in coastal area of mazandaran province was written to protect the environment from harmful effects of waste accumulation. features and framework of this instruction is illustrated briefly in this article. <br />Based on the amount of waste produced, urban distribution, lack of extensive road network and topography of the region, four incineration plants are suggested instead of a centralized plant. <br />Fereidonkenar and Babolsar based on Babolsar, with plant capacity of 200 tons per day; Mahmoudabad, Noor and Royan based on Noor, with plant capacity of 100 tons per day; Noshahr, Chalus, Hachirod and Salmanshahr based on Chalus, with plant capacity of 200 tons per day and Aasabad, Tonekabon, Shyrod, Ktalm and Sadat mahale and Ramsar based on Tonekabon, with plant capacity of 200 tons per day, must be constructed. <br />It is predicted that future challenges are waste reduction, making an integrated system for waste collection and disposal, using 3r technology, and converting waste to energy.https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_53003_9e6c75ba51e7545f3d021a1283769c28.pdfدانشگاه تهرانJournal of Environmental Studies1025-862040420141222Optimization of Water Allocation using Cooperative Game Theory
Case Study: Zayandehrud BasinOptimization of Water Allocation using Cooperative Game Theory
Case Study: Zayandehrud Basin8758895300410.22059/jes.2014.53004FANedaAkbariMaster of Science, Department of Environmnetal Engineering, Faculty of Environment, University of TehranMohammad HosseinNiksokhanAssistant Professor, Department of Environmnetal Engineering, Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran,MojtabaArdestaniAssociate Professor, Department of Environmnetal Engineering, Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran,Journal Article20140209Introduction: <br />When there is no determined value for water (as a public asset) by its trustees and beneficiaries and its allocation method is more dependent on the requirements of water consumers than comparing water affairs benefits with its real value, decision making on which interested group, when and to what extent can use water is a game. This study is aimed to determine sustainable policies for water allocation to interested groups such that high quality sufficient water is available to survive water bodies and economic purposes of interested groups are satisfied by sustainability agreement with the environment. For this, the environment is recognized as an independent water user in optimization model and as an independent player in the game theory. Thereby, Zayandehrud basin has been studied as a case study. <br /> <br />Materials and Methods: <br />In this study was first dealt with optimizing the allocation of water output from the reservoir to consumptions including drinking, agriculture, industry and environment by means of genetic algorithm. To get the most desirable possible state of water provision for consumptions, 4 approaches have been considered, as described briefly below. <br />The first includes providing biological current for the river which is in an equilibrium using Tenant (Montana) method and available data (providing 2.06 (MCM) for each month in the cold season and 6.18 (MCM) for each month in the warm season). The second has been formulated by providing minimum water requirement for lagoon survival and considering protection and provision of minimum survival requirements for this valuable water ecosystem in the area. Continuity of natural life in the swamp depends completely on water depth. The lowest possible depth for vital activities is in about depth of 15cm. This depth can be achieved by importing 75 MCM per year water to the swamp. Benthos is hardly survived in this depth. The third includes providing desirable quality for the lagoon based on TDS such that the water requirements for TDS dilution have been assumed as a biological requirement. In the fourth, provision of minimum water requirement for the lagoon is considered and with regard to the studies on Gavkhoony swamp, desirable performance occurs with provision of 140MCM per year water. This amount provides depth of 30cm for the swamp. Then, having estimated benefits of each beneficiary, their interactions in the basin have economically investigated by cooperative games. The percentages of requirement provision for beneficiaries and annual water allocations have presented in Table 1 for different approaches. The benefits of each beneficiary and the results of cooperative game have been provided in Figure 1. <br />Tabel - Gross profit of water user in each approach <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />4<sup>th</sup> approache <br /> <br /> <br />3<sup>rd</sup> approache <br /> <br /> <br />2<sup>nd</sup> approache <br /> <br /> <br />1<sup>st</sup> approache <br /> <br /> <br />User <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Benefit ($) <br /> <br /> <br />Water use (MCM) <br /> <br /> <br />Benefit ($) <br /> <br /> <br />Water use (MCM) <br /> <br /> <br />Benefit ($) <br /> <br /> <br />Water use (MCM) <br /> <br /> <br />Benefit ($) <br /> <br /> <br />Water use (MCM) <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />2057.38 <br /> <br /> <br />8756.8 <br /> <br /> <br />2032.89 <br /> <br /> <br />8652.6 <br /> <br /> <br />2157.34 <br /> <br /> <br />9182.32 <br /> <br /> <br />2057.89 <br /> <br /> <br />8759 <br /> <br /> <br />Agriculture <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />622.55 <br /> <br /> <br />924.3 <br /> <br /> <br />622.09 <br /> <br /> <br />923.61 <br /> <br /> <br />622.49 <br /> <br /> <br />924.21 <br /> <br /> <br />622.47 <br /> <br /> <br />924.17 <br /> <br /> <br />Industry <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />208 <br /> <br /> <br />1747.2 <br /> <br /> <br />124.4 <br /> <br /> <br />1044.98 <br /> <br /> <br />106.03 <br /> <br /> <br />890.71 <br /> <br /> <br />117.16 <br /> <br /> <br />985.05 <br /> <br /> <br />Environment <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />2<sup>nd</sup> Approach <br /> <br /> <br />1<sup>st</sup> Approach <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />4<sup>th</sup> Approach <br /> <br /> <br />3<sup>rd</sup> Approach <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Figure 1. Results of cooperative games in different approaches <br /> <br />Discussion and Conclusion: <br />With regard to data from the studied area, in spite of various managerial plans to increase water provision for the basin, it no longer satisfies the requirements of water consumers. Specially, it is the case in the environmental sector where because of ignorance and devoting water allocation priorities in the recent years, it has been deficient in its life and is completely dependent on seasonal currents and rainfalls. According to the designed approaches in the environmental sector of this study, more than 85% of its requirements can be eliminated in allocations. With water provision approach for environment sector, 3-8% of agricultural and 8% of industrial requirements are deficient. From environmental requirement provision point of view which has been distinctively defined in every approach, the model has shown the best performance in the first approach such that 100% of environmental requirements are satisfied. Of course, considering that this approach has accounted minimum requirements for the environment, minimum deficiencies in agricultural and industrial allocations have been observed. Maximum water requirement has been considered in the fourth approach in which optimization model can allocate 87% of environmental requirements. The fourth approach, from water allocation to the environment view point, is the best approach because of water allocation to the environment with regard to water content as well as positioning the lagoon in a desirable state for survival. <br />It can be concluded from economic analyses of model approaches that the industry has the same benefit in all approaches despite 8% change in water allocation respect to unfair allocation and low or high environmental utility in different approaches has no influence on economic performance of the industry. The second approach has the most benefit in agricultural sector and it has the best performance in environmental sector because of the most desirable state for the river and lagoon survival. Economic analysis shows that agricultural sector has more benefit in second approach than other states. From model allocations, it can be said monthly allocation and distribution model has impressive effect in agricultural sector. With constant optimization procedure in allocations, agricultural sector incurs severe pressures but considering allocated water and benefits in the agricultural sector, first, second and fourth approaches have little differences because of monthly water distribution procedure in firth and third approaches. <br />From game theory, benefits from player cooperation in agricultural and environmental sector have been more than no cooperation. The industry earns the same benefit from both states, except for third approach. Proportional Nucleolus game has maximum benefit in agricultural sector, except in the first approach. Weak Nucleolus has shown better performance in benefit calculation in the environmental sector, except for fourth approach. Therefore, there is no specified procedure for games but because of more benefit from cooperation in agricultural and environmental sectors than no cooperation both sectors will get more benefits from cooperation beside water requirement provision. Best benefit allocation has respectively occurred in fourth, second, third and first approaches. <br />Finally, it is clear that considering the environment as a beneficiary of basins and planning for water resource management makes always more benefit the system, although less water allocation to consumers makes less benefit. Because of no profit in environment sector and no protest except in critical conditions, there is ignorance in this sector while water ecosystems are most valuable resources that their economic value estimation is complicated and far from reality but with these economic methods it is seen that the aggregate benefit and profit is in the environment protection and survival.Introduction: <br />When there is no determined value for water (as a public asset) by its trustees and beneficiaries and its allocation method is more dependent on the requirements of water consumers than comparing water affairs benefits with its real value, decision making on which interested group, when and to what extent can use water is a game. This study is aimed to determine sustainable policies for water allocation to interested groups such that high quality sufficient water is available to survive water bodies and economic purposes of interested groups are satisfied by sustainability agreement with the environment. For this, the environment is recognized as an independent water user in optimization model and as an independent player in the game theory. Thereby, Zayandehrud basin has been studied as a case study. <br /> <br />Materials and Methods: <br />In this study was first dealt with optimizing the allocation of water output from the reservoir to consumptions including drinking, agriculture, industry and environment by means of genetic algorithm. To get the most desirable possible state of water provision for consumptions, 4 approaches have been considered, as described briefly below. <br />The first includes providing biological current for the river which is in an equilibrium using Tenant (Montana) method and available data (providing 2.06 (MCM) for each month in the cold season and 6.18 (MCM) for each month in the warm season). The second has been formulated by providing minimum water requirement for lagoon survival and considering protection and provision of minimum survival requirements for this valuable water ecosystem in the area. Continuity of natural life in the swamp depends completely on water depth. The lowest possible depth for vital activities is in about depth of 15cm. This depth can be achieved by importing 75 MCM per year water to the swamp. Benthos is hardly survived in this depth. The third includes providing desirable quality for the lagoon based on TDS such that the water requirements for TDS dilution have been assumed as a biological requirement. In the fourth, provision of minimum water requirement for the lagoon is considered and with regard to the studies on Gavkhoony swamp, desirable performance occurs with provision of 140MCM per year water. This amount provides depth of 30cm for the swamp. Then, having estimated benefits of each beneficiary, their interactions in the basin have economically investigated by cooperative games. The percentages of requirement provision for beneficiaries and annual water allocations have presented in Table 1 for different approaches. The benefits of each beneficiary and the results of cooperative game have been provided in Figure 1. <br />Tabel - Gross profit of water user in each approach <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />4<sup>th</sup> approache <br /> <br /> <br />3<sup>rd</sup> approache <br /> <br /> <br />2<sup>nd</sup> approache <br /> <br /> <br />1<sup>st</sup> approache <br /> <br /> <br />User <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Benefit ($) <br /> <br /> <br />Water use (MCM) <br /> <br /> <br />Benefit ($) <br /> <br /> <br />Water use (MCM) <br /> <br /> <br />Benefit ($) <br /> <br /> <br />Water use (MCM) <br /> <br /> <br />Benefit ($) <br /> <br /> <br />Water use (MCM) <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />2057.38 <br /> <br /> <br />8756.8 <br /> <br /> <br />2032.89 <br /> <br /> <br />8652.6 <br /> <br /> <br />2157.34 <br /> <br /> <br />9182.32 <br /> <br /> <br />2057.89 <br /> <br /> <br />8759 <br /> <br /> <br />Agriculture <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />622.55 <br /> <br /> <br />924.3 <br /> <br /> <br />622.09 <br /> <br /> <br />923.61 <br /> <br /> <br />622.49 <br /> <br /> <br />924.21 <br /> <br /> <br />622.47 <br /> <br /> <br />924.17 <br /> <br /> <br />Industry <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />208 <br /> <br /> <br />1747.2 <br /> <br /> <br />124.4 <br /> <br /> <br />1044.98 <br /> <br /> <br />106.03 <br /> <br /> <br />890.71 <br /> <br /> <br />117.16 <br /> <br /> <br />985.05 <br /> <br /> <br />Environment <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />2<sup>nd</sup> Approach <br /> <br /> <br />1<sup>st</sup> Approach <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />4<sup>th</sup> Approach <br /> <br /> <br />3<sup>rd</sup> Approach <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Figure 1. Results of cooperative games in different approaches <br /> <br />Discussion and Conclusion: <br />With regard to data from the studied area, in spite of various managerial plans to increase water provision for the basin, it no longer satisfies the requirements of water consumers. Specially, it is the case in the environmental sector where because of ignorance and devoting water allocation priorities in the recent years, it has been deficient in its life and is completely dependent on seasonal currents and rainfalls. According to the designed approaches in the environmental sector of this study, more than 85% of its requirements can be eliminated in allocations. With water provision approach for environment sector, 3-8% of agricultural and 8% of industrial requirements are deficient. From environmental requirement provision point of view which has been distinctively defined in every approach, the model has shown the best performance in the first approach such that 100% of environmental requirements are satisfied. Of course, considering that this approach has accounted minimum requirements for the environment, minimum deficiencies in agricultural and industrial allocations have been observed. Maximum water requirement has been considered in the fourth approach in which optimization model can allocate 87% of environmental requirements. The fourth approach, from water allocation to the environment view point, is the best approach because of water allocation to the environment with regard to water content as well as positioning the lagoon in a desirable state for survival. <br />It can be concluded from economic analyses of model approaches that the industry has the same benefit in all approaches despite 8% change in water allocation respect to unfair allocation and low or high environmental utility in different approaches has no influence on economic performance of the industry. The second approach has the most benefit in agricultural sector and it has the best performance in environmental sector because of the most desirable state for the river and lagoon survival. Economic analysis shows that agricultural sector has more benefit in second approach than other states. From model allocations, it can be said monthly allocation and distribution model has impressive effect in agricultural sector. With constant optimization procedure in allocations, agricultural sector incurs severe pressures but considering allocated water and benefits in the agricultural sector, first, second and fourth approaches have little differences because of monthly water distribution procedure in firth and third approaches. <br />From game theory, benefits from player cooperation in agricultural and environmental sector have been more than no cooperation. The industry earns the same benefit from both states, except for third approach. Proportional Nucleolus game has maximum benefit in agricultural sector, except in the first approach. Weak Nucleolus has shown better performance in benefit calculation in the environmental sector, except for fourth approach. Therefore, there is no specified procedure for games but because of more benefit from cooperation in agricultural and environmental sectors than no cooperation both sectors will get more benefits from cooperation beside water requirement provision. Best benefit allocation has respectively occurred in fourth, second, third and first approaches. <br />Finally, it is clear that considering the environment as a beneficiary of basins and planning for water resource management makes always more benefit the system, although less water allocation to consumers makes less benefit. Because of no profit in environment sector and no protest except in critical conditions, there is ignorance in this sector while water ecosystems are most valuable resources that their economic value estimation is complicated and far from reality but with these economic methods it is seen that the aggregate benefit and profit is in the environment protection and survival.https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_53004_1ab4e353662f6173751ebe71e3e55786.pdfدانشگاه تهرانJournal of Environmental Studies1025-862040420141222Statistical analysis of frost characteristics in Saghez weather stationStatistical analysis of frost characteristics in Saghez weather station8919005300510.22059/jes.2014.53005FAMahmoudMolanejadAssistant Professor of Institute of Advanced Technology Study, Iranian Research Organization for Science and Technology (IROST)Journal Article20140602Introduction <br />Frost is one of the most hazardous natural phenomena which it is at times accompanied by abundant damages in the life and properties. Freezing and frost are very important for agricultural products in different stages of the growth. This is because, in case of happening, it results in the reduction of the products. Frost is the stage of water freezing. In such condition, when the air temperature decreases to dew point, ice cover is formed over the surface. Mojarrad Gharehbagh in addition to presenting a new definition of frost, he analyzed and extracted the frost characteristics based on 16 indices systematically. Mirmousavi and Hosseinbabaei studied the temporal-spatial distributions of the frost occurrence probability in Zanjan province. They found that, on average, the first frost events of the region are occurred in autumn season from 19th of September to 15th of November, and generally the frosts events are ended from 9th of April to 20th of May. <br />Montazeri attempted to study the agricultural frosts in NajafAbad city. This results showed that the general frequency of frost days were not decreased, meanwhile the occurrence of the severe frosts have been decreased as well as the frequency of the occurrence of zero-temperature frosts have been highly increased. Jahanbakhsh et al. attempted to analyze the springtime frosts of Tabriz in view of synoptic. Their results indicated that the longest and the severest frosts occurred between 27th March – 1st April 2003 and 5th April 2004, which this is due to the formation of low pressure centers and deepening the related troughs over the north of Caspian Sea. Masoudian and Darand investigated the widespread frosts of Iran and found that 5 patterns of sea level pressures (SLPs) result in severe and widespread frosts in Iran. They also concluded that the severity of the frost events in different regions of Iran is in good agreement with those the path of the anticyclonic systems. Thom and Show proved that the occurrence dates of frosts are random and are based on a normal distribution. For this reason, using mean and standard deviation are considered as valid indices to study the frost events. Tavakoli and Hosseini analyzed the frost indices and its autumn-time occurrence in Ekbatan-Hamedan station and presented a model to predict the autumn-time frosts. Zolfaghari et al. predicted the last date of spring-time frosts in west and northwest of Iran. Their results showed that it was possible to predict the last dates of the spring-time frosts among the stations in the study area using error post-distribution network. The computed error was low in all the stations. The highest error measured in Arak station with %1.1142, while the lowest error computed in Mahabad station with %0.254. Easterling attempted to investigate the recent changes in days with frost and no frost in the USA and he found that during the period 1948-1999 the frequency of frost days declined, but the length of the days without frost increased. <br />Home studied the temporal distribution of seasonal-annual frosts in relation to their trends in the past years. Karl investigated the precipitation and minimum and maximum temperatures, and found that these parameters can be statistically predicted. Bootsma analyzed the minimum temperature and possible occurrence of frost in mountainous regions of Canada. In a research, Behyar studied the cold event of 27th of April, 2003 in Charmahale-e-Bakhtiari province using different meteorological variables to identify the dynamical-synoptic factors responsible for this cold event in the region. Rabani and Karami attempted to study the frequency trend of frost days in Northern Khorasan province. Their results showed that the number of frost’s days during the examined period indicated a descending trend in such a way that it is in good agreement with the increasing trend of annual temperature in the study area. <br />Soltani et al. studied the meteorological aspects of an abnormal cooling event over Iran in April 2009. Their results showed that a polar vortex was responsible for the freezing event over the country extending southward extraordinarily in such a way that its ridge influenced most parts of Iran. This was recognized as an abnormal extension of a polar vortex in the recent years. The sea-level pressure fields indicated that a ridge of large-scale anticyclone centered over Black Sea extended southward and prevailed over most parts of Iran. This resulted in the formation of a severe cold air advection from high latitudes (Polar region) over Iran. <br />Data and Methods <br />In order to investigate the frosts characteristics in synoptic station of Saghez, the frequency of frost days is extracted for the period 1976-2007 and then the minimum temperature data are analyzed on the basis of Jouliosi calendar. The geographic position of the study station is shown in Fig. 1. The homogeneity of the data series verified using Runs Test. After that, the days with a temperature less than 0 ͦC are extracted as a frost day, and the frosts are classified into three categories: weak (ranging from 0 ͦC to -1.1 ͦC); moderate (ranging from -1.1 ͦC to -3.3 ͦC), and severe (less than -3.3 ͦC). Table 1 shows the frequency of occurrence and the beginning/ending date of the frosts with different thresholds during the examined period in Saghez station. In addition, to determine the trend of frost days in Saghez station, a correlation equation was applied between the number of the frost days and length of records (years), which the linear equation is as follows: <br /> <br />Which X is the length of records; Y is the total of frost days. It is worthwhile to mention that the above equation is significant at 5%. <br /> <br />Fig. 1.: The geographic position of the study station <br />Conclusions <br />The knowledge and experience of scientists have presented some solutions over the course of the time, which have been useful in reducing the damages from climatic disasters like frost.. The maps of frost occurrence probability and the first data of autumn-time frosts as well as the last date of spring-time frosts are a simple example, but very significant in studying the frosts for agricultural purposes. Through studying of the temperature data and frosts days in Saghez station during a 32-year period, we found that the minimum temperature over the past two decades had an increasing (positive) trend in such a way that this trend was most severe in the past five years indicating the effect of global warming as a result of a natural process or human activities in the globe. The findings indicate that the severe frosts in Saghez station are mostly occurred in January, February and December months, and the moderate frosts happen in January, February, November, December and March months, and finally the weak frosts usually take place in the months of March, October and April. The trend of frosts days and minimum temperature in Saghez station indicates a vice versa correlation as well as an increasing trend in frost days and decreasing trend in minimum temperature. This trend, which is unusual, is due to the decrease of temperature from 1986 to 1989, which is clear for the number of frost days, as well. The important point in studying the frosts in Saghez station is that, according to the obtained equation, there is a meaningful/significant correlation between the beginning dates of autumn frosts and ending dates of springtime frosts as well as the minimum temperatures of September and April of the same year. So that, the sooner the springtime frosts are ended accompanied by a high minimum temperature of September and April, the later the autumn frosts are started and vice versa. Furthermore, it was determined that the soonest autumn frost occurred on the 2nd day of 2002, and the latest springtime frost took place on the 247th day of the year 2002. Therefore, generally it can be said that through studying and predicting the frost events on time, we will be able to protect the agricultural products against frosts using different methods such as: using heating systems like stove/heater, wind generator machines or helicopters, producing artificial fog etc.Introduction <br />Frost is one of the most hazardous natural phenomena which it is at times accompanied by abundant damages in the life and properties. Freezing and frost are very important for agricultural products in different stages of the growth. This is because, in case of happening, it results in the reduction of the products. Frost is the stage of water freezing. In such condition, when the air temperature decreases to dew point, ice cover is formed over the surface. Mojarrad Gharehbagh in addition to presenting a new definition of frost, he analyzed and extracted the frost characteristics based on 16 indices systematically. Mirmousavi and Hosseinbabaei studied the temporal-spatial distributions of the frost occurrence probability in Zanjan province. They found that, on average, the first frost events of the region are occurred in autumn season from 19th of September to 15th of November, and generally the frosts events are ended from 9th of April to 20th of May. <br />Montazeri attempted to study the agricultural frosts in NajafAbad city. This results showed that the general frequency of frost days were not decreased, meanwhile the occurrence of the severe frosts have been decreased as well as the frequency of the occurrence of zero-temperature frosts have been highly increased. Jahanbakhsh et al. attempted to analyze the springtime frosts of Tabriz in view of synoptic. Their results indicated that the longest and the severest frosts occurred between 27th March – 1st April 2003 and 5th April 2004, which this is due to the formation of low pressure centers and deepening the related troughs over the north of Caspian Sea. Masoudian and Darand investigated the widespread frosts of Iran and found that 5 patterns of sea level pressures (SLPs) result in severe and widespread frosts in Iran. They also concluded that the severity of the frost events in different regions of Iran is in good agreement with those the path of the anticyclonic systems. Thom and Show proved that the occurrence dates of frosts are random and are based on a normal distribution. For this reason, using mean and standard deviation are considered as valid indices to study the frost events. Tavakoli and Hosseini analyzed the frost indices and its autumn-time occurrence in Ekbatan-Hamedan station and presented a model to predict the autumn-time frosts. Zolfaghari et al. predicted the last date of spring-time frosts in west and northwest of Iran. Their results showed that it was possible to predict the last dates of the spring-time frosts among the stations in the study area using error post-distribution network. The computed error was low in all the stations. The highest error measured in Arak station with %1.1142, while the lowest error computed in Mahabad station with %0.254. Easterling attempted to investigate the recent changes in days with frost and no frost in the USA and he found that during the period 1948-1999 the frequency of frost days declined, but the length of the days without frost increased. <br />Home studied the temporal distribution of seasonal-annual frosts in relation to their trends in the past years. Karl investigated the precipitation and minimum and maximum temperatures, and found that these parameters can be statistically predicted. Bootsma analyzed the minimum temperature and possible occurrence of frost in mountainous regions of Canada. In a research, Behyar studied the cold event of 27th of April, 2003 in Charmahale-e-Bakhtiari province using different meteorological variables to identify the dynamical-synoptic factors responsible for this cold event in the region. Rabani and Karami attempted to study the frequency trend of frost days in Northern Khorasan province. Their results showed that the number of frost’s days during the examined period indicated a descending trend in such a way that it is in good agreement with the increasing trend of annual temperature in the study area. <br />Soltani et al. studied the meteorological aspects of an abnormal cooling event over Iran in April 2009. Their results showed that a polar vortex was responsible for the freezing event over the country extending southward extraordinarily in such a way that its ridge influenced most parts of Iran. This was recognized as an abnormal extension of a polar vortex in the recent years. The sea-level pressure fields indicated that a ridge of large-scale anticyclone centered over Black Sea extended southward and prevailed over most parts of Iran. This resulted in the formation of a severe cold air advection from high latitudes (Polar region) over Iran. <br />Data and Methods <br />In order to investigate the frosts characteristics in synoptic station of Saghez, the frequency of frost days is extracted for the period 1976-2007 and then the minimum temperature data are analyzed on the basis of Jouliosi calendar. The geographic position of the study station is shown in Fig. 1. The homogeneity of the data series verified using Runs Test. After that, the days with a temperature less than 0 ͦC are extracted as a frost day, and the frosts are classified into three categories: weak (ranging from 0 ͦC to -1.1 ͦC); moderate (ranging from -1.1 ͦC to -3.3 ͦC), and severe (less than -3.3 ͦC). Table 1 shows the frequency of occurrence and the beginning/ending date of the frosts with different thresholds during the examined period in Saghez station. In addition, to determine the trend of frost days in Saghez station, a correlation equation was applied between the number of the frost days and length of records (years), which the linear equation is as follows: <br /> <br />Which X is the length of records; Y is the total of frost days. It is worthwhile to mention that the above equation is significant at 5%. <br /> <br />Fig. 1.: The geographic position of the study station <br />Conclusions <br />The knowledge and experience of scientists have presented some solutions over the course of the time, which have been useful in reducing the damages from climatic disasters like frost.. The maps of frost occurrence probability and the first data of autumn-time frosts as well as the last date of spring-time frosts are a simple example, but very significant in studying the frosts for agricultural purposes. Through studying of the temperature data and frosts days in Saghez station during a 32-year period, we found that the minimum temperature over the past two decades had an increasing (positive) trend in such a way that this trend was most severe in the past five years indicating the effect of global warming as a result of a natural process or human activities in the globe. The findings indicate that the severe frosts in Saghez station are mostly occurred in January, February and December months, and the moderate frosts happen in January, February, November, December and March months, and finally the weak frosts usually take place in the months of March, October and April. The trend of frosts days and minimum temperature in Saghez station indicates a vice versa correlation as well as an increasing trend in frost days and decreasing trend in minimum temperature. This trend, which is unusual, is due to the decrease of temperature from 1986 to 1989, which is clear for the number of frost days, as well. The important point in studying the frosts in Saghez station is that, according to the obtained equation, there is a meaningful/significant correlation between the beginning dates of autumn frosts and ending dates of springtime frosts as well as the minimum temperatures of September and April of the same year. So that, the sooner the springtime frosts are ended accompanied by a high minimum temperature of September and April, the later the autumn frosts are started and vice versa. Furthermore, it was determined that the soonest autumn frost occurred on the 2nd day of 2002, and the latest springtime frost took place on the 247th day of the year 2002. Therefore, generally it can be said that through studying and predicting the frost events on time, we will be able to protect the agricultural products against frosts using different methods such as: using heating systems like stove/heater, wind generator machines or helicopters, producing artificial fog etc.https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_53005_7752f59554d70db199a2c242abab03e3.pdfدانشگاه تهرانJournal of Environmental Studies1025-862040420141222Kinetic and Thermodynamic Studies of Zinc Removal from a Metal-Plating Wastewater Using Firouzkouh ZeoliteKinetic and Thermodynamic Studies of Zinc Removal from a Metal-Plating Wastewater Using Firouzkouh Zeolite9019125300610.22059/jes.2014.53006FASaeidHojatiAssistant Professor, Department of Soil Science, College of Agriculture, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Khuzestan, IranAhmadLandiAssociate Professor, Department of Soil Science, College of Agriculture, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Khuzestan, IranJournal Article20140503Introduction <br />With the rapid development of industries such as metal plating facilities, mining, fertilizer producing industries, tanneries and paper industries heavy metals enriched wastewaters are directly or indirectly discharged into the environment. Zinc is a trace element that is essential for human health. It is important for the physiological functions of living tissues and regulates many biochemical processes. However, too much zinc can cause eminent health problems, such as stomach cramps, skin irritations, vomiting, nausea and anemia. It is present in effluents from various industries such as galvanization and metal-plating facilities, manufacture of batteries and other metallurgical industries. <br />The most commonly used methods for the removal of metal ions from industrial effluents include chemical precipitation, solvent extraction, reverse osmosis, ultra filtration, adsorption and ion exchange. Adsorption has been proven to be an excellent and cheap method to remove hazardous materials such as heavy metals and organic dyes from waste effluents. <br />A good understanding of adsorption equilibrium and thermodynamics is required to design and operate an adsorption process. Natural zeolites are widely distributed in arid and semiarid regions of the world. They are low cost aluminosilicates, with a cage-like structure suitable for ion exchange due to isomorphous substitution of Al<sup>3+</sup> with Si<sup>4+</sup> in the structure, giving rise to a deficiency of positive charge in the framework. Due to the above structural characteristics as well as the chemical and mechanical stability, they have received a great attention for the removal of heavy metals from wastewaters. Therefore, this study was conducted to identify the suitability of this mineral for removal of zinc ions from a metal plating wastewater through a series of batch experiments. Accordingly, the influence of contact time, solution temperature, size and dose of zeolite particles were investigated. <br /> <br />Methods and Materials <br />Wastewater sample <br />The wastewater sample used in this study was taken from a zinc metal-plating facility in Tehran, northern Iran. The wastewater sample was analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity (EC), the total concentration of dissolved solids, turbidity, and the total concentration of Zn, Fe, Mg, Pb, and Cd ions. The concentration of Zn and other heavy metals was determined using a Savant GBC Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). <br /><em> </em> <br />Kinetic experiments <br />All sorption studies were performed using the batch technique because of its simplicity and reliability. The experiments were conducted at pH = 5, sorbent concentration of 2 g l<sup>-1</sup>, sorbent size of 20-50 µm and at the temperature of 20±1ºC. <br />To investigate the effect of contact time on the adsorption processes a constant mass of zeolite (adsorbent) (0.1 g) and 50 ml of known concentration of wastewater were added to 80 ml polypropylene centrifuge tubes. The mixtures were shaken vigorously on an orbital shaker (175 rpm) and at specified times (5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 60, 120, 240, 480, 720, 1440, and 2880 minutes). Tubes were then removed from the shaker and centrifuged at 2,500 rpm for 25 min and the Zn concentration in the supernatant was measured using AAS. <br />In order to investigate the effects of suspension pH and temperature, adsorbent dose and particle size of adsorbents on the percentage removal of Zn, the above experiments were also run by varying initial temperature (20 and 40 ° C using a thermostatic shaker bath) adsorbent dose (2, 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20 g l<sup>-1</sup>), and particle size of adsorbent (<2, 2-20, and 20-50 µm) while keeping all other parameters constant. All the experiments were carried out using the largest size and lowest amount of sorbents to identify how removal efficiency is affected if smaller size of particles and higher doses of zeolite particles are applied. <br />Control treatments with no addition of adsorbent were also run to test the possible adsorption and/or precipitation of Zn onto the container walls. Preliminary experiments showed that metal losses due to the adsorption onto the container walls were negligible. <br />The amount of Zn<sup>2+</sup> adsorbed by zeolite, C<sub>S</sub> (mg g<sup>-1</sup>), was obtained as follow: <br /> (1) <br />Where, <em>C<sub>0</sub></em> and <em>C<sub>e</sub></em>(mg l<sup>-1</sup>) are the initial and final (equilibrium) concentrations of Zn, respectively; V (ml) is the volume of solution and M is the mass of sorbent (mg). All measurements were carried out with three replications. <br /><em> </em> <br />Thermodynamic studies <br />The activation energy of Zn adsorption on zeolite was calculated using Arrehenius equation which is expressed as below: <br />k2 = k exp (-Ea/RT) (6) <br />Where k is the temperature-independent factor (g mg <sup>-1</sup> min<sup>-1</sup>), E<sub>a</sub> the activation energy of sorption (KJ mol<sup>-1</sup>), R the universal gas constant (8.314 J mol<sup>-1</sup> K) and T is the solution temperature (K). <br />Thermodynamic parameters of sorption including Gibbs free energy (ΔG<sub>0</sub>), change in enthalpy (ΔH<sub>0</sub>) and change in entropy (ΔS<sub>0</sub>) were also calculated using the following equations (7&8): <br />ΔG<sup>0</sup> = -RT ln K<sub>0</sub> (7) <br />Ln K<sub>0</sub> = ΔS<sup>0</sup>/R- ΔH<sup>0</sup>/RT (8) <br /> <br />K<sub>0</sub> can be defined as: <br />K<sub>0</sub> = C<sub>solid</sub>/C<sub>liquid</sub> (9) <br /> <br />Where, C<sub>solid</sub> is the amount of Zn<sup>2+</sup> adsorbed by zeolite at equilibrium and C<sub>liquid</sub> is the equilibrium concentration of Zn<sup>2+</sup> in solution. The values of ΔH<sup>0</sup>, ΔS<sup>0</sup> and ΔG<sup>0</sup> calculated from the slope and intercept of the plot of Ln K<sub>0</sub> versus 1/T, respectively. <br /> <br />Results and Discussion <br />Contact time is an important parameter because it can reflect the adsorption kinetics of an adsorbent for a given initial concentration of adsorbate. The results showed an increasing trend on sorption of zinc ions onto zeolite particles. Based on this, the maximum adsorption capacity of zeolite for zinc ions was 17.9 mg g<sup>-1</sup> and more than 80 percent of the total amounts of zinc ions were absorbed on zeolite particles within first 2 hours of experiments. The initial rapid phase may be due to the increase in the number of vacant sites and also the high concentration gradient between adsorbate in solution and that in the adsorbent. <br />As the temperature increases from 20 to 40 <sup>◦</sup>C, the adsorption capacity of sepiolite for Zn<sup>2+</sup> decreases from 17.9.1 to 14.9 mg g<sup>-1</sup>. The decrease in removal capacity of Zn<sup>2+</sup> ion with the rise in temperature is probably due to an increase in desorption of Zn<sup>2+</sup> ion from the minerals interface to the solution. Results obtained from thermodynamic studies illustrated that sorption of zinc on zeolite particles is a reversible exothermic and physical process. <br />As compared to the pseudo-first-order kinetic model, a very good correlation coefficient (<em>r<sup>2</sup></em>) was obtained for the pseudo-second-order kinetic model. <br />As expected, the percent removal of Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions increases as the amount of sepiolite increases. This can be attributed to an increase in the number of sorbent sites after the addition of more mineral particles to the suspension. <br />The results of the effect of zeolite particle size on the removal efficiency of Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions from wastewater indicates that as the particle size decreases, the metal diffusion is induced. This increases the accessibility of Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions by the mineral. This suggests that the most suitable particle size of sepiolite for the removal of Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions from wastewater studied is < 2µm. <br />The results also indicated that under similar conditions (T= 40<sup>◦</sup>C), increasing dose of zeolite particles to more than 12 g l<sup>-1</sup> with sizes less than 2 µm is a good way to reach to the maximum efficiency for the removal of zinc ions from the studied wastewater.Introduction <br />With the rapid development of industries such as metal plating facilities, mining, fertilizer producing industries, tanneries and paper industries heavy metals enriched wastewaters are directly or indirectly discharged into the environment. Zinc is a trace element that is essential for human health. It is important for the physiological functions of living tissues and regulates many biochemical processes. However, too much zinc can cause eminent health problems, such as stomach cramps, skin irritations, vomiting, nausea and anemia. It is present in effluents from various industries such as galvanization and metal-plating facilities, manufacture of batteries and other metallurgical industries. <br />The most commonly used methods for the removal of metal ions from industrial effluents include chemical precipitation, solvent extraction, reverse osmosis, ultra filtration, adsorption and ion exchange. Adsorption has been proven to be an excellent and cheap method to remove hazardous materials such as heavy metals and organic dyes from waste effluents. <br />A good understanding of adsorption equilibrium and thermodynamics is required to design and operate an adsorption process. Natural zeolites are widely distributed in arid and semiarid regions of the world. They are low cost aluminosilicates, with a cage-like structure suitable for ion exchange due to isomorphous substitution of Al<sup>3+</sup> with Si<sup>4+</sup> in the structure, giving rise to a deficiency of positive charge in the framework. Due to the above structural characteristics as well as the chemical and mechanical stability, they have received a great attention for the removal of heavy metals from wastewaters. Therefore, this study was conducted to identify the suitability of this mineral for removal of zinc ions from a metal plating wastewater through a series of batch experiments. Accordingly, the influence of contact time, solution temperature, size and dose of zeolite particles were investigated. <br /> <br />Methods and Materials <br />Wastewater sample <br />The wastewater sample used in this study was taken from a zinc metal-plating facility in Tehran, northern Iran. The wastewater sample was analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity (EC), the total concentration of dissolved solids, turbidity, and the total concentration of Zn, Fe, Mg, Pb, and Cd ions. The concentration of Zn and other heavy metals was determined using a Savant GBC Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). <br /><em> </em> <br />Kinetic experiments <br />All sorption studies were performed using the batch technique because of its simplicity and reliability. The experiments were conducted at pH = 5, sorbent concentration of 2 g l<sup>-1</sup>, sorbent size of 20-50 µm and at the temperature of 20±1ºC. <br />To investigate the effect of contact time on the adsorption processes a constant mass of zeolite (adsorbent) (0.1 g) and 50 ml of known concentration of wastewater were added to 80 ml polypropylene centrifuge tubes. The mixtures were shaken vigorously on an orbital shaker (175 rpm) and at specified times (5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 60, 120, 240, 480, 720, 1440, and 2880 minutes). Tubes were then removed from the shaker and centrifuged at 2,500 rpm for 25 min and the Zn concentration in the supernatant was measured using AAS. <br />In order to investigate the effects of suspension pH and temperature, adsorbent dose and particle size of adsorbents on the percentage removal of Zn, the above experiments were also run by varying initial temperature (20 and 40 ° C using a thermostatic shaker bath) adsorbent dose (2, 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20 g l<sup>-1</sup>), and particle size of adsorbent (<2, 2-20, and 20-50 µm) while keeping all other parameters constant. All the experiments were carried out using the largest size and lowest amount of sorbents to identify how removal efficiency is affected if smaller size of particles and higher doses of zeolite particles are applied. <br />Control treatments with no addition of adsorbent were also run to test the possible adsorption and/or precipitation of Zn onto the container walls. Preliminary experiments showed that metal losses due to the adsorption onto the container walls were negligible. <br />The amount of Zn<sup>2+</sup> adsorbed by zeolite, C<sub>S</sub> (mg g<sup>-1</sup>), was obtained as follow: <br /> (1) <br />Where, <em>C<sub>0</sub></em> and <em>C<sub>e</sub></em>(mg l<sup>-1</sup>) are the initial and final (equilibrium) concentrations of Zn, respectively; V (ml) is the volume of solution and M is the mass of sorbent (mg). All measurements were carried out with three replications. <br /><em> </em> <br />Thermodynamic studies <br />The activation energy of Zn adsorption on zeolite was calculated using Arrehenius equation which is expressed as below: <br />k2 = k exp (-Ea/RT) (6) <br />Where k is the temperature-independent factor (g mg <sup>-1</sup> min<sup>-1</sup>), E<sub>a</sub> the activation energy of sorption (KJ mol<sup>-1</sup>), R the universal gas constant (8.314 J mol<sup>-1</sup> K) and T is the solution temperature (K). <br />Thermodynamic parameters of sorption including Gibbs free energy (ΔG<sub>0</sub>), change in enthalpy (ΔH<sub>0</sub>) and change in entropy (ΔS<sub>0</sub>) were also calculated using the following equations (7&8): <br />ΔG<sup>0</sup> = -RT ln K<sub>0</sub> (7) <br />Ln K<sub>0</sub> = ΔS<sup>0</sup>/R- ΔH<sup>0</sup>/RT (8) <br /> <br />K<sub>0</sub> can be defined as: <br />K<sub>0</sub> = C<sub>solid</sub>/C<sub>liquid</sub> (9) <br /> <br />Where, C<sub>solid</sub> is the amount of Zn<sup>2+</sup> adsorbed by zeolite at equilibrium and C<sub>liquid</sub> is the equilibrium concentration of Zn<sup>2+</sup> in solution. The values of ΔH<sup>0</sup>, ΔS<sup>0</sup> and ΔG<sup>0</sup> calculated from the slope and intercept of the plot of Ln K<sub>0</sub> versus 1/T, respectively. <br /> <br />Results and Discussion <br />Contact time is an important parameter because it can reflect the adsorption kinetics of an adsorbent for a given initial concentration of adsorbate. The results showed an increasing trend on sorption of zinc ions onto zeolite particles. Based on this, the maximum adsorption capacity of zeolite for zinc ions was 17.9 mg g<sup>-1</sup> and more than 80 percent of the total amounts of zinc ions were absorbed on zeolite particles within first 2 hours of experiments. The initial rapid phase may be due to the increase in the number of vacant sites and also the high concentration gradient between adsorbate in solution and that in the adsorbent. <br />As the temperature increases from 20 to 40 <sup>◦</sup>C, the adsorption capacity of sepiolite for Zn<sup>2+</sup> decreases from 17.9.1 to 14.9 mg g<sup>-1</sup>. The decrease in removal capacity of Zn<sup>2+</sup> ion with the rise in temperature is probably due to an increase in desorption of Zn<sup>2+</sup> ion from the minerals interface to the solution. Results obtained from thermodynamic studies illustrated that sorption of zinc on zeolite particles is a reversible exothermic and physical process. <br />As compared to the pseudo-first-order kinetic model, a very good correlation coefficient (<em>r<sup>2</sup></em>) was obtained for the pseudo-second-order kinetic model. <br />As expected, the percent removal of Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions increases as the amount of sepiolite increases. This can be attributed to an increase in the number of sorbent sites after the addition of more mineral particles to the suspension. <br />The results of the effect of zeolite particle size on the removal efficiency of Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions from wastewater indicates that as the particle size decreases, the metal diffusion is induced. This increases the accessibility of Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions by the mineral. This suggests that the most suitable particle size of sepiolite for the removal of Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions from wastewater studied is < 2µm. <br />The results also indicated that under similar conditions (T= 40<sup>◦</sup>C), increasing dose of zeolite particles to more than 12 g l<sup>-1</sup> with sizes less than 2 µm is a good way to reach to the maximum efficiency for the removal of zinc ions from the studied wastewater.https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_53006_105bf8531ca519344e49746a58ad4e85.pdfدانشگاه تهرانJournal of Environmental Studies1025-862040420141222Source identification of hydrocarbons in surface sediments of mangrove forests of Khoran Strait-Persian GulfSource identification of hydrocarbons in surface sediments of mangrove forests of Khoran Strait-Persian Gulf9139275300710.22059/jes.2014.53007FAZohrehEbrahimi SiriziMSc, Department of Environment, School of Natural Resources, Tarbiat Modares University.AlirezaRiyahi BakhtiyarAssistant Professor, Department of Environment, School of Natural Resources, Tarbiat Modares University.SanazGhaffariPhD Student, Department of Environment, School of Natural Resources, Tarbiat Modares UniversityJournal Article20131117 <br />Introduction <br />Persian Gulf is one of the most important water pathways in the world that has been heavily developed for crude oil production, transportation and exportation. It is well established that such activities result in contamination of the marine environment by petroleum and petroleum productions. The Persian Gulf represents a highly stressful environment due to prevailing natural conditions and development pressures along its coastline. It has approximately two-thirds of the worlds proven oil reserves and currently account for approximately one-fourth of the world oil production. The Persian Gulf is greatly intensified by oil spills and accidental discharges of various magnitudes have been reported in the region. <br /> <br />One of the most valuable of Persian Gulf ecosystems are mangrove forests. Mangroves are perhaps the dominant and most important intertidal habitat along tropical and subtropical coastlines and estuaries. These rich ecosystems are located in areas of high risk of acute or chronic petroleum pollution. Further, high levels of hydrocarbons may be expected to remain in mangrove sediments after occurrence petroleum contamination because these environments are not favorable for hydrocarbon depletion by sediment transport or degradation by bacteria. These zones are critical areas where valuable biological resources and rich biodiversity are threatened. These regions are continually exposed to anthropogenic contamination of hydrocarbons from different sources. Mangrove’s unique features such as high productivity, abundant detritus and rich organic carbon may make it an advantageous site for uptake and preservation of hydrocarbons. <br /> <br />The studies of distribution and concentration of hydrocarbons were mainly performed in marine water and sediments. Studies that have been carried out to assess the distribution and source of hydrocarbons in mangrove ecosystems are scarce. Straight chain alkanes (<em>n</em>-alkanes) and Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are common biomarkers that have been applied to assess the petroleum pollution in the marine environment. Therefore the primary objective of this study is to investigate hydrocarbons in the mangrove forests of Khoran Strait (Persian Gulf) as well as identify possible hydrocarbon sources in area. <br />Materials & Methods <br />In order to determine the source and concentration identification of hydrocarbons in the Khoran Strait, 17 surface sediments collected from mangrove Forest of this strait were analyzed for <em>n</em>-alkane and PAH compounds. <br />Sampling was conducted during low tide and any water was not overlying the sediments. Surface sediment samples were collected by using stainless spoon and then transferred into a stainless steel container to reduce any contamination. The containers were labeled and placed in icebox at 4°C then transportation to the laboratory for further analysis. The samples was stored in the Cold Room (-20°C) until further analysis. <br />The collected sediment samples were freeze dried for 3 days to get rid of any water contained in the samples. After the samples were freeze dried they were then stored frozen before proceeding with the analysis of the hydrocarbons. <br />About 10 g of each sample (dry weight) was used for extraction of hydrocarbons. The samples were extracted with a soxhlet extractor using 320ml dichloromethane (DCM) for 8 hours. In order to eliminate any sulfur in the samples, a few of copper chips were added into the samples and left overnight. <br />Volume of the solvents was reduced using rotary-evaporator to approximately 1 ml. The extracts were transferred onto the top of a 5% H<sub>2</sub>O-deactivated silica gel column. The column was rinsed with 20ml dichloromethane/hexane (1:3, v/v). In this step most of the organic pollutants including <em>n</em>-alkanes, PCBs, LABs and PAHs were separated from other polar compounds. The eluted sample was reduced in volume by rotary evaporator for the second step of column chromatography. Fully activated silica gel was used In the 2<sup>nd</sup> step column chromatography. The concentrated sample from first column was added to the second column and charged with 4ml of hexane to get alkane fraction. To get PAHs fraction 14ml dichloromethane/hexane (1:3, v/v) was used. All fractions were evaporated to approximately 1ml then transferred to glass ampoule and evaporated to dryness under gentle stream of nitrogen then alkane samples and re-dissolved into 100µl iso-octane and PAHs samples are re-dissolved into 100µl<em> p</em>-terphenyl-d<sub>14</sub> as an IIS (Internal Injection Standard) for PAHs. <br />Samples were analyzed by Gas Chromatography – Mass Spectrometry (GC – MS) using an Agilent Technologies 5975C quadrupole mass spectrometer coupled with an Agilent 7890A gas chromatoghraph. A 30m fused silica capillary column with 0.25 internal diameter and 0.25 µm film thickness, helium was used as carrier gas in the analysis. <br /> <br />Results and Discussion <br />In this study<em> n</em>-alkanes in range (<em>n</em>-C<sub>14</sub>-<em>n</em>C<sub>33</sub>) and twenty-three compounds of PAHs were investigated in this study. Total concentration of <em>n</em>-alkanes (mean±SE) was 2802±334µg/g and for PAHs was 1.918±0.267µg/g (dry weight). <br />The diagnostic hydrocarbonic ratios were used for source identification of hydrocarbon in this regain. The sources of PAHs, whether from pyrolytic or from petrogenic origins, may be determined by ratios of individual PAH compounds based on properties in PAH composition and distribution pattern as a function of the emission source. The molecular patterns produced by each source, however, are like fingerprints, which make it possible to hypothesize which processes produce PAHs. In order to source identification of PAHs, ratio values of phenanthrene/anthracene (Phe/Ant) are widely employed. Usually pyrogenic source of PAHs characterized with low amount of this ratio. Generally Phe/Ant ratios >10 and Phe/Ant ratios Ratio of Fluoranthen/Pyren is one of the ratios that widely employed as characteristic tools. Similarly, Flr/Pyr ratios >1 and The benzo(a)anthracene/chrysene (BaA/Chr) ratio has also been suggested to identify PAH origins, this ratio tended to increase as petrogenic contribution decreased. In present study, the mean value of this ratio was 0.22. PAHs of molecular mass 178 and 202 are widely used to identify between petrogenic and pyrogenic sources. For mass178, ratio of anthracene to anthracene plus phenanthrene (An/ An+Ph) are employed. Ratio< 0.10 and >0.10 indicate petrogenic and pyrogenic sources, respectively. In present study, the value of this ratio was 0.05 that strongly indicated major source of PAHs in this regain is petrogenic. <br />For mass 202, ratio of fluoranthene to fluoranthene plus pyrene (Fl/Fl+Py) has been suggested to characterize the source of PAHs. The value 0.40 for this ratio, specified as the petrogenic/pyrogenic transition point. Most petroleum samples have (Fl/Fl+Pyr) ratio below 0.40 while those of most combustion produced PAHs are above 0.40. In this investigation mean value of this ratio was 0.35 that indicated petrogenic source. <br />Among PAHs with molecular mass of 228, the ratio of benzo(a)anthracene to the sum of benzo(a)anthracene and chrysene, (BaA/BaA+Chr) is also declarative of the PAHs sources. Values lower than 0.20 for this ratio suggests a petrogenic source, whereas values from 0.20 to 0.35 indicates a petroleum or combustion source, and any values higher than 0.35 signify a combustion source. For present study the mean value of this ratio was 0.16. likewise, petrogenic sources may be idetified by a ratio of indeno(1,2,3-cd) pyrene to the sum of indeno(1,2,3-cd) pyrene and benzo[g,h,i] perylene, IP/(IP+Bghi), lower than 0.20. A ratio between 0.20 and 0.50 may suggest liquid fossil fuel combustion, and a ratio higher than 0.50 indicates biomass and coal combustion. In this study the mean value of this ratio was 0.17. <br /> The samples were also calculated using methylphenanthrene/phenanthrene (MP/P) ratio to determine the source of PAHs. The value of less than 1 is the combustion sources and more than 1 consists of petroleum sources. In present study the mean value of this ratio was 2. <br />Also ratio of LMW/HMW is employed for indentification of PAHs source. The high amount of this ratio strongly indicated petrogenic source. The mean value of this ratio was 19.78, that this amount is rather high. <br /> We use of some ratios to source identification of n-alkanes in Khuran strait, too. Wide range of CPI, TAR and U/R for sediment samples of Khuran strait have indicated that there are combined sources (biogenic and petrogenic sources) for organic matter of surface sediments. Therefore predominate petrogenic source in some of the Middle part stations and biogenic in some others could be explained for these reasons. Pr/Ph, Pr/<em>n</em>-C<sub>17</sub> and Ph/<em>n</em>-C<sub>18</sub> ratio is close to 1 indicating background petrogenic source in surface sediments of Persian Gulf mangrove forests. <br />In summary, results showed that the main source of hydrocarbons in this regain is mixed source of biogenic and petrogenic origin. <br />Introduction <br />Persian Gulf is one of the most important water pathways in the world that has been heavily developed for crude oil production, transportation and exportation. It is well established that such activities result in contamination of the marine environment by petroleum and petroleum productions. The Persian Gulf represents a highly stressful environment due to prevailing natural conditions and development pressures along its coastline. It has approximately two-thirds of the worlds proven oil reserves and currently account for approximately one-fourth of the world oil production. The Persian Gulf is greatly intensified by oil spills and accidental discharges of various magnitudes have been reported in the region. <br /> <br />One of the most valuable of Persian Gulf ecosystems are mangrove forests. Mangroves are perhaps the dominant and most important intertidal habitat along tropical and subtropical coastlines and estuaries. These rich ecosystems are located in areas of high risk of acute or chronic petroleum pollution. Further, high levels of hydrocarbons may be expected to remain in mangrove sediments after occurrence petroleum contamination because these environments are not favorable for hydrocarbon depletion by sediment transport or degradation by bacteria. These zones are critical areas where valuable biological resources and rich biodiversity are threatened. These regions are continually exposed to anthropogenic contamination of hydrocarbons from different sources. Mangrove’s unique features such as high productivity, abundant detritus and rich organic carbon may make it an advantageous site for uptake and preservation of hydrocarbons. <br /> <br />The studies of distribution and concentration of hydrocarbons were mainly performed in marine water and sediments. Studies that have been carried out to assess the distribution and source of hydrocarbons in mangrove ecosystems are scarce. Straight chain alkanes (<em>n</em>-alkanes) and Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are common biomarkers that have been applied to assess the petroleum pollution in the marine environment. Therefore the primary objective of this study is to investigate hydrocarbons in the mangrove forests of Khoran Strait (Persian Gulf) as well as identify possible hydrocarbon sources in area. <br />Materials & Methods <br />In order to determine the source and concentration identification of hydrocarbons in the Khoran Strait, 17 surface sediments collected from mangrove Forest of this strait were analyzed for <em>n</em>-alkane and PAH compounds. <br />Sampling was conducted during low tide and any water was not overlying the sediments. Surface sediment samples were collected by using stainless spoon and then transferred into a stainless steel container to reduce any contamination. The containers were labeled and placed in icebox at 4°C then transportation to the laboratory for further analysis. The samples was stored in the Cold Room (-20°C) until further analysis. <br />The collected sediment samples were freeze dried for 3 days to get rid of any water contained in the samples. After the samples were freeze dried they were then stored frozen before proceeding with the analysis of the hydrocarbons. <br />About 10 g of each sample (dry weight) was used for extraction of hydrocarbons. The samples were extracted with a soxhlet extractor using 320ml dichloromethane (DCM) for 8 hours. In order to eliminate any sulfur in the samples, a few of copper chips were added into the samples and left overnight. <br />Volume of the solvents was reduced using rotary-evaporator to approximately 1 ml. The extracts were transferred onto the top of a 5% H<sub>2</sub>O-deactivated silica gel column. The column was rinsed with 20ml dichloromethane/hexane (1:3, v/v). In this step most of the organic pollutants including <em>n</em>-alkanes, PCBs, LABs and PAHs were separated from other polar compounds. The eluted sample was reduced in volume by rotary evaporator for the second step of column chromatography. Fully activated silica gel was used In the 2<sup>nd</sup> step column chromatography. The concentrated sample from first column was added to the second column and charged with 4ml of hexane to get alkane fraction. To get PAHs fraction 14ml dichloromethane/hexane (1:3, v/v) was used. All fractions were evaporated to approximately 1ml then transferred to glass ampoule and evaporated to dryness under gentle stream of nitrogen then alkane samples and re-dissolved into 100µl iso-octane and PAHs samples are re-dissolved into 100µl<em> p</em>-terphenyl-d<sub>14</sub> as an IIS (Internal Injection Standard) for PAHs. <br />Samples were analyzed by Gas Chromatography – Mass Spectrometry (GC – MS) using an Agilent Technologies 5975C quadrupole mass spectrometer coupled with an Agilent 7890A gas chromatoghraph. A 30m fused silica capillary column with 0.25 internal diameter and 0.25 µm film thickness, helium was used as carrier gas in the analysis. <br /> <br />Results and Discussion <br />In this study<em> n</em>-alkanes in range (<em>n</em>-C<sub>14</sub>-<em>n</em>C<sub>33</sub>) and twenty-three compounds of PAHs were investigated in this study. Total concentration of <em>n</em>-alkanes (mean±SE) was 2802±334µg/g and for PAHs was 1.918±0.267µg/g (dry weight). <br />The diagnostic hydrocarbonic ratios were used for source identification of hydrocarbon in this regain. The sources of PAHs, whether from pyrolytic or from petrogenic origins, may be determined by ratios of individual PAH compounds based on properties in PAH composition and distribution pattern as a function of the emission source. The molecular patterns produced by each source, however, are like fingerprints, which make it possible to hypothesize which processes produce PAHs. In order to source identification of PAHs, ratio values of phenanthrene/anthracene (Phe/Ant) are widely employed. Usually pyrogenic source of PAHs characterized with low amount of this ratio. Generally Phe/Ant ratios >10 and Phe/Ant ratios Ratio of Fluoranthen/Pyren is one of the ratios that widely employed as characteristic tools. Similarly, Flr/Pyr ratios >1 and The benzo(a)anthracene/chrysene (BaA/Chr) ratio has also been suggested to identify PAH origins, this ratio tended to increase as petrogenic contribution decreased. In present study, the mean value of this ratio was 0.22. PAHs of molecular mass 178 and 202 are widely used to identify between petrogenic and pyrogenic sources. For mass178, ratio of anthracene to anthracene plus phenanthrene (An/ An+Ph) are employed. Ratio< 0.10 and >0.10 indicate petrogenic and pyrogenic sources, respectively. In present study, the value of this ratio was 0.05 that strongly indicated major source of PAHs in this regain is petrogenic. <br />For mass 202, ratio of fluoranthene to fluoranthene plus pyrene (Fl/Fl+Py) has been suggested to characterize the source of PAHs. The value 0.40 for this ratio, specified as the petrogenic/pyrogenic transition point. Most petroleum samples have (Fl/Fl+Pyr) ratio below 0.40 while those of most combustion produced PAHs are above 0.40. In this investigation mean value of this ratio was 0.35 that indicated petrogenic source. <br />Among PAHs with molecular mass of 228, the ratio of benzo(a)anthracene to the sum of benzo(a)anthracene and chrysene, (BaA/BaA+Chr) is also declarative of the PAHs sources. Values lower than 0.20 for this ratio suggests a petrogenic source, whereas values from 0.20 to 0.35 indicates a petroleum or combustion source, and any values higher than 0.35 signify a combustion source. For present study the mean value of this ratio was 0.16. likewise, petrogenic sources may be idetified by a ratio of indeno(1,2,3-cd) pyrene to the sum of indeno(1,2,3-cd) pyrene and benzo[g,h,i] perylene, IP/(IP+Bghi), lower than 0.20. A ratio between 0.20 and 0.50 may suggest liquid fossil fuel combustion, and a ratio higher than 0.50 indicates biomass and coal combustion. In this study the mean value of this ratio was 0.17. <br /> The samples were also calculated using methylphenanthrene/phenanthrene (MP/P) ratio to determine the source of PAHs. The value of less than 1 is the combustion sources and more than 1 consists of petroleum sources. In present study the mean value of this ratio was 2. <br />Also ratio of LMW/HMW is employed for indentification of PAHs source. The high amount of this ratio strongly indicated petrogenic source. The mean value of this ratio was 19.78, that this amount is rather high. <br /> We use of some ratios to source identification of n-alkanes in Khuran strait, too. Wide range of CPI, TAR and U/R for sediment samples of Khuran strait have indicated that there are combined sources (biogenic and petrogenic sources) for organic matter of surface sediments. Therefore predominate petrogenic source in some of the Middle part stations and biogenic in some others could be explained for these reasons. Pr/Ph, Pr/<em>n</em>-C<sub>17</sub> and Ph/<em>n</em>-C<sub>18</sub> ratio is close to 1 indicating background petrogenic source in surface sediments of Persian Gulf mangrove forests. <br />In summary, results showed that the main source of hydrocarbons in this regain is mixed source of biogenic and petrogenic origin.https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_53007_f7bd543d3e7945addee0027c17098a88.pdfدانشگاه تهرانJournal of Environmental Studies1025-862040420141222The Study of Heavy Metal accumulation (Zn, Cu, Pb and Cd )
in muscle of Great White Heron (Egretta alba) in Hara Biosphere
ReserveThe Study of Heavy Metal accumulation (Zn, Cu, Pb and Cd )
in muscle of Great White Heron (Egretta alba) in Hara Biosphere
Reserve9299365300810.22059/jes.2014.53008FAFarnazSheybanifarEducated From Master, Department of Environmental Sciences, Adjudicated of Natural Resource and Environment, Malayer UniversitySamarMortazaviAssistant Professor, Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Natural Resource and Environment, Malayer University0000-0002-0628-4724Mir MehrdadMirsanjariAssistant Professor, Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Natural Resource and Environment, Malayer UniversityJournal Article20131221 <br />Introduction <br />Environmental pollution specially sea pollution is one of the complex and minatory problems‚ human faced with these days. Many of human activities have irrecoverable outcomes and effects on marine environment in a way that destruction of marine zones becomes a threat. <br />Sea was one of the important sources with special advantages for mankind in all the times and still is, so protect of its environment and animal live in it has a significant role in mankind process of life. <br />Heavy metals are the most important material that enter to the sea through rivers and shore zones and aggregate in aquatic body through food chain. Heavy metals can cause serious effects on ecosystem stability. In assessment of an ecosystem changes, research about the all elements and relation is impossible,so using monitoring species can provide trustful information for evaluating environment quality. Biological monitoring of seashore zones with use of sea animals is a substantial method to study pollution cause to waste water discharge and human wastes. Bird in comparsion with other animals are too sensitive to environment pollution. They may distribute chemicals like heavy metals through direct connection or using polluted water or food. In other way, because of their indirect connection to polluted sources, they can determine the level of toxic element concentration in marine ecosystem feed chain. So the bird pollution for heavy metals can anticipate of pollution in food chains. <br />In this study the Great White Heron (<em>Egretta</em> <em>alba</em>) selected for evaluating the heavy metals concentration. Among different tissues, soft ones are more used for monitoring activities so we use muscle of Great White Heron in this study. <br />Materials and Methods <br />Hara Biosphere Reserve is located in south of Iran in the Straits of Khuran between Queshm Island and the Persian Gulf. Its latitude and longitude coordinates are 36°40' to 37° Nand 55°21' to 55°52' E, respectively. Situated in Mehran River delta, it hosts the largest seabirds along the Persian Gulf shoreline and, therefore, represents a center of biodiversity in Iran. The variety of biosphere reserve with its unique mangrove trees provides a diverse habitat for birds like egrets, herons, pelicans, and plovers. In a way, that in 2010, the host had been 36 species and 13,000 water birds and wader birds. It also serves as a breeding and spawning habitat for fish, shrimp, and other crustaceans. On the other hand, this region is one of the protected areas in Iran and this region was introduced as one of the important bird areas by international organization of bird life. <br />After primary studies about the studying areas we collected 20 Great White Heron in November and Desember 2012 from Hara Biosphere Resesve. After that‚ they transferred to laboratory. In laboratory birds were dissected, and one tissue sample of muscle were taken from each bird with a steel scalpel and placed in oven in 105°C for 24 hours. After that we weight samples by scale for 1 gram parts. In digestion phase add with nitric acid (65%) and perchloric acid (60%) in ration of 4 :1 to each samples ( one gram of weighted samples with 8 mil liter nitric acid and 2 mil liter perchloric acid) and in Hot Block Digester, first in 40°C for one hour and then in 140°C for 3 hours digested. Later samples screen by whatman screen paper and the volume of the solution reached to 25 ml by distilled water. Each samples then kept in refrigrator in polyethylene jars in order to later evalute heavy metals. In this study measurement of heavy metals concentration took place by atomic absorption machine contrAA 700 model. For confidence from digestion process accuracy and effectiveness of consume materials on heavy metal concentration, in each digestion round, there were a control sample to achieve the sizable results from concentration got from the metal in diffrent samples. Mann Whitney U test were used for comparing the concentration of heavy metals in male and female and adult and juvenile birds. <br />Discussion of Results <br />In this study the result showed that maximum average concentration belongs to zinc and the minimum to cadmium. Also the results showed that there was no significant difference about heavy metal concentration between male and female except for lead. Also‚ there was no significant difference in heavy metal concentration between adult and juvenile birds. <br />The average of zinc concentration in Great White Heron muscle in this study is 96.53 µg/g that in compare of Karimi᾽s studies on <em>Phalacrocorax carbo </em>in Anzali pond in Iran is much more than. <br />The average of copper concentration in our study is 11.78 µg/g that in compare of Karimi᾽s studies on <em>Phalacrocorax carbo </em>in Anzali pond in Iran is too low. <br />Essential metals like zinc and copper are neccessary for body metabolism‚ but if their concentration in animal body increased‚ it will have bad effects on animal health. Essential metals are necessary in all tissues. This metals play an basic role in growing chicks and their bone growth. Painting and scrubing of ships in shipbuilding factories and their wastes full of zinc in Bandar Abbas is the most important factor in increasing the concentration of zinc and copper in this bird. <br />The average of lead concentration in our study is 0.72 µg/g that in compare of Lucia᾽s studies on grey plover in France is much more than Lead (Pb), which often is present in relation to hunting activities, impairs the growth and survival of nestlings; causes haemolytic anaemia in wild Pb-poisoned birds; has adverse effects on reproduction, such as decreased plasma calcium and egg production; and causes behavioral problems.Human activity and development of oil refinery and petrochemical industry‚ zinc and lead factories in Qeshm Island and ship transportation in South of Iran may play the most important role in absorption of this metal in muscle tissue of this bird. <br />The average of cadmium concentration in our study is 0.049 µg/g that in compare of Tsipoura᾽s studies on Canada geese in New Jersey is much more than. Cadmium has been described as one of the most dangerous trace elements in food and environment, not only for its high toxicity but also for its persistence. Atmospheric cadmium deposited on the earth's crust can be absorbed or retained by soil particles and become part of biological structures. Dissolved cadmium is readily absorbed by plants and leaches rapidly into the subsoil, contaminating deep and surface waters The transfer of cadmium from soils to the edible portions of agricultural crops is significantly greater than that of other elements. <br />The most important factor in increasing cadmium in Hara region is due to oil pollutions‚ because cadmium is one of the elements of oil. Either‚ if the oil pollution don’t occure by accidents or sudden events‚ it causes by exit of ship᾽s ballast water that this problem happen in Bahonar‚ Folad and Rajaei᾽s waterfront. <br />We compared the mean concentrations of heavy metal with standards. The results showed that the average concentration of zinc is much higher than standards but the levels of lead‚ copper and cadmium in muscle was below toxicity level. Nevertheless, high concentration of these elements in some samples showing the exposure of these birds to heavy metals. Generally human activities and development and stablishment of various industries around Hara region can be the basic sources of pollution and the effective cause of increasing these metals. <br /> Conclusions <br />The results showed that there was no significant difference about heavy metal concentration between male and female except for lead. Also‚ there was no significant difference in heavy metal concentration between adult and juvenile birds. The concentration of heavy metals in birds affected by lifeplace‚ rate of atmosphere pollution and their diet. <br />Also‚the results showed that the levels of lead‚ copper and cadmium in muscle was below toxicity level except zinc‚ but the high concentration of heavy metal in some samples indicates that birds are potentially pose at the risk of heavy metal in their habitate. <br /> <br />Introduction <br />Environmental pollution specially sea pollution is one of the complex and minatory problems‚ human faced with these days. Many of human activities have irrecoverable outcomes and effects on marine environment in a way that destruction of marine zones becomes a threat. <br />Sea was one of the important sources with special advantages for mankind in all the times and still is, so protect of its environment and animal live in it has a significant role in mankind process of life. <br />Heavy metals are the most important material that enter to the sea through rivers and shore zones and aggregate in aquatic body through food chain. Heavy metals can cause serious effects on ecosystem stability. In assessment of an ecosystem changes, research about the all elements and relation is impossible,so using monitoring species can provide trustful information for evaluating environment quality. Biological monitoring of seashore zones with use of sea animals is a substantial method to study pollution cause to waste water discharge and human wastes. Bird in comparsion with other animals are too sensitive to environment pollution. They may distribute chemicals like heavy metals through direct connection or using polluted water or food. In other way, because of their indirect connection to polluted sources, they can determine the level of toxic element concentration in marine ecosystem feed chain. So the bird pollution for heavy metals can anticipate of pollution in food chains. <br />In this study the Great White Heron (<em>Egretta</em> <em>alba</em>) selected for evaluating the heavy metals concentration. Among different tissues, soft ones are more used for monitoring activities so we use muscle of Great White Heron in this study. <br />Materials and Methods <br />Hara Biosphere Reserve is located in south of Iran in the Straits of Khuran between Queshm Island and the Persian Gulf. Its latitude and longitude coordinates are 36°40' to 37° Nand 55°21' to 55°52' E, respectively. Situated in Mehran River delta, it hosts the largest seabirds along the Persian Gulf shoreline and, therefore, represents a center of biodiversity in Iran. The variety of biosphere reserve with its unique mangrove trees provides a diverse habitat for birds like egrets, herons, pelicans, and plovers. In a way, that in 2010, the host had been 36 species and 13,000 water birds and wader birds. It also serves as a breeding and spawning habitat for fish, shrimp, and other crustaceans. On the other hand, this region is one of the protected areas in Iran and this region was introduced as one of the important bird areas by international organization of bird life. <br />After primary studies about the studying areas we collected 20 Great White Heron in November and Desember 2012 from Hara Biosphere Resesve. After that‚ they transferred to laboratory. In laboratory birds were dissected, and one tissue sample of muscle were taken from each bird with a steel scalpel and placed in oven in 105°C for 24 hours. After that we weight samples by scale for 1 gram parts. In digestion phase add with nitric acid (65%) and perchloric acid (60%) in ration of 4 :1 to each samples ( one gram of weighted samples with 8 mil liter nitric acid and 2 mil liter perchloric acid) and in Hot Block Digester, first in 40°C for one hour and then in 140°C for 3 hours digested. Later samples screen by whatman screen paper and the volume of the solution reached to 25 ml by distilled water. Each samples then kept in refrigrator in polyethylene jars in order to later evalute heavy metals. In this study measurement of heavy metals concentration took place by atomic absorption machine contrAA 700 model. For confidence from digestion process accuracy and effectiveness of consume materials on heavy metal concentration, in each digestion round, there were a control sample to achieve the sizable results from concentration got from the metal in diffrent samples. Mann Whitney U test were used for comparing the concentration of heavy metals in male and female and adult and juvenile birds. <br />Discussion of Results <br />In this study the result showed that maximum average concentration belongs to zinc and the minimum to cadmium. Also the results showed that there was no significant difference about heavy metal concentration between male and female except for lead. Also‚ there was no significant difference in heavy metal concentration between adult and juvenile birds. <br />The average of zinc concentration in Great White Heron muscle in this study is 96.53 µg/g that in compare of Karimi᾽s studies on <em>Phalacrocorax carbo </em>in Anzali pond in Iran is much more than. <br />The average of copper concentration in our study is 11.78 µg/g that in compare of Karimi᾽s studies on <em>Phalacrocorax carbo </em>in Anzali pond in Iran is too low. <br />Essential metals like zinc and copper are neccessary for body metabolism‚ but if their concentration in animal body increased‚ it will have bad effects on animal health. Essential metals are necessary in all tissues. This metals play an basic role in growing chicks and their bone growth. Painting and scrubing of ships in shipbuilding factories and their wastes full of zinc in Bandar Abbas is the most important factor in increasing the concentration of zinc and copper in this bird. <br />The average of lead concentration in our study is 0.72 µg/g that in compare of Lucia᾽s studies on grey plover in France is much more than Lead (Pb), which often is present in relation to hunting activities, impairs the growth and survival of nestlings; causes haemolytic anaemia in wild Pb-poisoned birds; has adverse effects on reproduction, such as decreased plasma calcium and egg production; and causes behavioral problems.Human activity and development of oil refinery and petrochemical industry‚ zinc and lead factories in Qeshm Island and ship transportation in South of Iran may play the most important role in absorption of this metal in muscle tissue of this bird. <br />The average of cadmium concentration in our study is 0.049 µg/g that in compare of Tsipoura᾽s studies on Canada geese in New Jersey is much more than. Cadmium has been described as one of the most dangerous trace elements in food and environment, not only for its high toxicity but also for its persistence. Atmospheric cadmium deposited on the earth's crust can be absorbed or retained by soil particles and become part of biological structures. Dissolved cadmium is readily absorbed by plants and leaches rapidly into the subsoil, contaminating deep and surface waters The transfer of cadmium from soils to the edible portions of agricultural crops is significantly greater than that of other elements. <br />The most important factor in increasing cadmium in Hara region is due to oil pollutions‚ because cadmium is one of the elements of oil. Either‚ if the oil pollution don’t occure by accidents or sudden events‚ it causes by exit of ship᾽s ballast water that this problem happen in Bahonar‚ Folad and Rajaei᾽s waterfront. <br />We compared the mean concentrations of heavy metal with standards. The results showed that the average concentration of zinc is much higher than standards but the levels of lead‚ copper and cadmium in muscle was below toxicity level. Nevertheless, high concentration of these elements in some samples showing the exposure of these birds to heavy metals. Generally human activities and development and stablishment of various industries around Hara region can be the basic sources of pollution and the effective cause of increasing these metals. <br /> Conclusions <br />The results showed that there was no significant difference about heavy metal concentration between male and female except for lead. Also‚ there was no significant difference in heavy metal concentration between adult and juvenile birds. The concentration of heavy metals in birds affected by lifeplace‚ rate of atmosphere pollution and their diet. <br />Also‚the results showed that the levels of lead‚ copper and cadmium in muscle was below toxicity level except zinc‚ but the high concentration of heavy metal in some samples indicates that birds are potentially pose at the risk of heavy metal in their habitate. <br /> https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_53008_7c88224c9971ca61839d405f5e525948.pdfدانشگاه تهرانJournal of Environmental Studies1025-862040420141222Effect of Reed and Hydraulic Retention Time on the Lead Removal in Horizontal Subsurface Flow Constructed WetlandEffect of Reed and Hydraulic Retention Time on the Lead Removal in Horizontal Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetland9379475300910.22059/jes.2014.53009FASaeedTaheri GhanadAssistant Professor, Department of Water Engineering, Dezful Branch, Islamic Azad University, DezfulHadiMoazedProfessor, Faculty of Water Sciences Engineering, Shahid Chamran University, Ahvaz, iran.SaeedBoroomand NasabProfessor, Faculty of Water Sciences Engineering, Shahid Chamran University, Ahvaz, iranNematollahJaafarzadehProfessor, School of Health, Ahvaz Jundishapour University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran.Journal Article20140516 <br />Introduction <br />Wetlands are classified into four kinds of flows as subsurface, surface, vertical, and hybrid flows. Usually, wetlands are planted with common reed (Phragmites Australis), a rhizomatose plant of the Graminae which produces a good yield in green biomass and whose roots can reach a considerable depth and plays a significant role in the wetland self-purification. The treatment efficiency of these systems mainly depends on the wetland design, hydraulic loading rate (HLR), and type of contaminant, microbial interactions and the climatic factors. For best treatment efficiency these systems require a low hydraulic loading rate and a long hydraulic retention time. The hydraulic retention time, including the length of time the water is in contact with the plant roots, affects the extent to which the plant plays a significant role in the removal or breakdown of pollutants. Whereas plants significantly affect the removal of pollutants in horizontal subsurface systems with long hydraulic retention times used to clean municipal wastewater, their role is minor in pollutant removal in periodically loaded vertical filters, which usually have short hydraulic retention times. With respect to the necessity of the research and above descriptions, the main purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of reed and the increasing hydraulic retention time from 1 day to 10 days on lead removal efficiency in horizontal subsurface-flow constructed wetland to reduce the negative impact generated by lead in the environment. <br /> <br />Matherials and Methods <br /> Experiments of research were conducted in the Agriculture Faculty of Islamic Azad University, Dezful, Iran (48°25´E, 32° 16´ N) under ambient conditions. Climate of this region is warm with Mediterranean rainfall regime. Artificial reed-bed system was containing three metal boxes made of galvanized iron in mesocosm scale (1×0.3×0.35m). Dimensions of bed were 1 m long, 0.3m width and 0.35 m height that filled by river sand with a diameter of 0.01-5 mm and a depth of 30 cm. A large number of young and healthy Phragmites Australis seedlings were gathered from local irrigation canals and were immediately cultivated a number of 20 plants in each wetland in June 7, 2013. While planting seedlings, at least a space 10 cm from each other and a depth 20 cm between the roots was considered which increased the buds and shoots during the reeds growth and prevented them from dying out. The surface loading rate and hydraulic retention time were selected as four different retention time variables including 1, 3, 5, and 10 days. The wastewater containing lead with a concentration of 10 mg pb/l was selected because was above standard of Iran Environmental Protection Agency, World Health Organization (WHO) and FAO for irrigation and this dose was also chosen in similar studies in the range 1-20 mgpb/l. All influent and effluent samplings and plant samples were measured by Perklim Elmer A Analyst 700 atomic absorption. <br /> <br /> <br />Results and Discussion <br />Models and Lead removal efficiencies <br /><em> </em>According to measurements, removal efficiency (RE) and relative concentration of inflow to outflow (c/c<sub>0</sub>) in synthetic wastewater were calculated. In addition, removal time ratio (RTR) was calculated at different retention times. Accordingly, the relationship between the lead removal efficiency and HRT was examined that the relevant equation was derived as the exponential equation by using CurveExpert1.4 software, so that among the fitted equations had the highest correlation coefficient (r=0.975) that its results were presented in Table 1. Meanwhile, Measurements showed the more hydraulic retention time increases, the more removal efficiency also increases but the increasing rate of RE was decreasing in the range of 88.2% to 84.1 during different retention times. <br /> <br />Table1. Regression coefficients of exponential equation of lead removal efficiency <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Standard error <br /> <br /> <br /> n <br /> <br /> <br />r <br /> <br /> <br />c <br /> <br /> <br />b <br /> <br /> <br />a <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />0.004 <br /> <br /> <br />12 <br /> <br /> <br />0.975 <br /> <br /> <br />0.718 <br /> <br /> <br />10.39 <br /> <br /> <br />0.085 <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Effect of Hydraulic Retention Time <br /> Changes trend of removal efficiency in relation to HRT showed that the more retention time increased, the more removal efficiency also increased. It seemed that with the increasing HRT, the hydraulic loading rate and lead surface loading rate decreased thus, enough opportunity was provided for physical, biological, and chemical processes for lead removal in the reed-bed systems. In order to investigate the significance effect of HRT on the removal efficiency, observed means were compared using SPSS18 software and Duncan’s test which the relevant results are shown in Table 2. According to the results a significant difference was observed between removal efficiencies at retention time 1, 3, 5 days (p˂0.05) but no significant difference was observed between efficiencies at retention time 5, 10 days (p˂0.05). Therefore, 5-day retention time is suggested in optimum conditions (Table 2). <br /> <br />Table 2.Effect of retention time on the average removal efficiency <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />HRT(day) <br /> <br /> <br />RE (%) <br /> <br /> <br />Duncan Test<sup>*</sup> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />1 <br /> <br /> <br />84.1 <br /> <br /> <br />A <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />3 <br /> <br /> <br />87.2 <br /> <br /> <br />B <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />5 <br /> <br /> <br />88.1 <br /> <br /> <br />C <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />10 <br /> <br /> <br />88.2 <br /> <br /> <br />C <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />* Different letters indicate significant difference between HRT at the level of P˂0.05. <br /> Similar studies have been done on the lead removal efficiency in constructed wetlands by different researchers and similar results have been obtained, so that the lead removal efficiency was mainly concluded in the range 76 to 95%. Moreover, the formation of insoluble sulfides, filtration of solids and colloids, sedimentation, combining with iron and manganese oxide have been reported as the main process in lead removal from waste water in CWs. In a research conducted in subsurface-flow constructed wetland in a pilot scale by cultivating Typha and Phragmites, similar result was obtained. In this study, the lead concentration of influent was in the range 1-20 mg/l and the removal efficiency was measured in the range of 75-96%. In another research conducted on lead and cadmium, was observed that with the increasing retention time from 2 to 6 days, removal of the heavy metals increased, too and the maximum removal efficiency was 75%. <br /> <br />Bioaccumulation Factor <br />The linear relationship between HRT and bioaccumulation factor (BAF) in the dry tissue of reed was examined. Accordingly, a linear relationship with high correlation coefficient (r<sup>2</sup>=0.988) was obtained based on the equation of in which HRT was hydraulic retention time in day and BAF was lead bioaccumulation factor in mg/kg of dry weight. The results showed that there was a significant relationship between hydraulic retention time and BAF so that with the increasing HRT, absorption of plant root increased up to 116 mg/kg d.w. of root tissue at 10-days HRT. Thus, reed is highly capable of absorbing and accumulating of Pb and plays an important role in the removal of lead in subsurface wetland system. Aquatic plants are among the main biological processes in wetlands because they not only directly absorb oxygen but also make it enter around the root zone which leads to nutrition absorption, oxidation and direct spoilage of contaminations and more activities of microorganisms. Consequently, different plant species play important roles in the heavy metals removal. With regard to the mass balance of lead in wetland, the percentage of bed and plant contribution in the lead removal was calculated, separately. As a result, the contribution of reed in lead removal during four retention times in the range of 8-22% of influent lead from 1 to 10 days, respectively so that the contribution of reed increased in relation to HRT but in contrast, the contribution of bed decreased in the range of 77 to 91% of influent lead. It seemed that the contribution of bed at lower retention time was more effective due to higher HLR and when the hydraulic retention time increased, the storage capacity of bed decreased. Considering that the used bed was made of fine sand and the sand lacked cation exchange capacity (CEC), so the removal mechanisms were mostly biological and physical mechanisms resulted from plant and microorganisms uptake and hydraulic characteristics, therefore with the increasing reed bioaccumulation factor (BAF) in relation to HRT, a decrease in the contribution of bed seems to be reasonable. Biological removal is an important pathway for heavy metal removal in the CWs, it includes plant and microbial uptake. The rate of metal removal by plants varies widely, depending on plant growth rate, plant species and concentration of the heavy metals in the wastewater. Maximum concentration of metals in plants has been observed in under-ground organs. <br /> <br />Conclusions <br /> The relative Concentration of effluent to influent (C/C<sub>0</sub>) decreased significantly due to the increasing HRT and the decreasing HLR from 19.8 to 3.5 cm/day and as a linear relationship with high correlation coefficient (R<sup>2</sup>=0.991). Therefore, the more retention time increased and the surface loading decreased, the more time was provided for chemical and biological processes affecting the lead removal in subsurface wetland system. Moreover, statistical analyses showed that there was a significant difference between removal efficiencies at retention times 1, 3, 5 days (p˂0.05) but there was no significance difference between efficiencies at retention time 5, 10 at 5% level. Therefore, 5-day retention time was suggested in optimum conditions with the removal efficiency 88.1%. Meanwhile, the results of the measurement of reed tissue showed that there was a direct relationship HRT and BAF, so that the more retention time increased, the more bioaccumulation factor increased up to 116 mg/kg d.w. of below organs during experiment period. Moreover, the contribution of reed in the lead removal was in the range of 8-22% of influent lead from 1 to 10 days, respectively so that the contribution of reed increased in relation to retention time. Consequently, reed played an important role in the removal of lead in horizontal subsurface wetland. <br /> <br />Introduction <br />Wetlands are classified into four kinds of flows as subsurface, surface, vertical, and hybrid flows. Usually, wetlands are planted with common reed (Phragmites Australis), a rhizomatose plant of the Graminae which produces a good yield in green biomass and whose roots can reach a considerable depth and plays a significant role in the wetland self-purification. The treatment efficiency of these systems mainly depends on the wetland design, hydraulic loading rate (HLR), and type of contaminant, microbial interactions and the climatic factors. For best treatment efficiency these systems require a low hydraulic loading rate and a long hydraulic retention time. The hydraulic retention time, including the length of time the water is in contact with the plant roots, affects the extent to which the plant plays a significant role in the removal or breakdown of pollutants. Whereas plants significantly affect the removal of pollutants in horizontal subsurface systems with long hydraulic retention times used to clean municipal wastewater, their role is minor in pollutant removal in periodically loaded vertical filters, which usually have short hydraulic retention times. With respect to the necessity of the research and above descriptions, the main purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of reed and the increasing hydraulic retention time from 1 day to 10 days on lead removal efficiency in horizontal subsurface-flow constructed wetland to reduce the negative impact generated by lead in the environment. <br /> <br />Matherials and Methods <br /> Experiments of research were conducted in the Agriculture Faculty of Islamic Azad University, Dezful, Iran (48°25´E, 32° 16´ N) under ambient conditions. Climate of this region is warm with Mediterranean rainfall regime. Artificial reed-bed system was containing three metal boxes made of galvanized iron in mesocosm scale (1×0.3×0.35m). Dimensions of bed were 1 m long, 0.3m width and 0.35 m height that filled by river sand with a diameter of 0.01-5 mm and a depth of 30 cm. A large number of young and healthy Phragmites Australis seedlings were gathered from local irrigation canals and were immediately cultivated a number of 20 plants in each wetland in June 7, 2013. While planting seedlings, at least a space 10 cm from each other and a depth 20 cm between the roots was considered which increased the buds and shoots during the reeds growth and prevented them from dying out. The surface loading rate and hydraulic retention time were selected as four different retention time variables including 1, 3, 5, and 10 days. The wastewater containing lead with a concentration of 10 mg pb/l was selected because was above standard of Iran Environmental Protection Agency, World Health Organization (WHO) and FAO for irrigation and this dose was also chosen in similar studies in the range 1-20 mgpb/l. All influent and effluent samplings and plant samples were measured by Perklim Elmer A Analyst 700 atomic absorption. <br /> <br /> <br />Results and Discussion <br />Models and Lead removal efficiencies <br /><em> </em>According to measurements, removal efficiency (RE) and relative concentration of inflow to outflow (c/c<sub>0</sub>) in synthetic wastewater were calculated. In addition, removal time ratio (RTR) was calculated at different retention times. Accordingly, the relationship between the lead removal efficiency and HRT was examined that the relevant equation was derived as the exponential equation by using CurveExpert1.4 software, so that among the fitted equations had the highest correlation coefficient (r=0.975) that its results were presented in Table 1. Meanwhile, Measurements showed the more hydraulic retention time increases, the more removal efficiency also increases but the increasing rate of RE was decreasing in the range of 88.2% to 84.1 during different retention times. <br /> <br />Table1. Regression coefficients of exponential equation of lead removal efficiency <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Standard error <br /> <br /> <br /> n <br /> <br /> <br />r <br /> <br /> <br />c <br /> <br /> <br />b <br /> <br /> <br />a <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />0.004 <br /> <br /> <br />12 <br /> <br /> <br />0.975 <br /> <br /> <br />0.718 <br /> <br /> <br />10.39 <br /> <br /> <br />0.085 <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Effect of Hydraulic Retention Time <br /> Changes trend of removal efficiency in relation to HRT showed that the more retention time increased, the more removal efficiency also increased. It seemed that with the increasing HRT, the hydraulic loading rate and lead surface loading rate decreased thus, enough opportunity was provided for physical, biological, and chemical processes for lead removal in the reed-bed systems. In order to investigate the significance effect of HRT on the removal efficiency, observed means were compared using SPSS18 software and Duncan’s test which the relevant results are shown in Table 2. According to the results a significant difference was observed between removal efficiencies at retention time 1, 3, 5 days (p˂0.05) but no significant difference was observed between efficiencies at retention time 5, 10 days (p˂0.05). Therefore, 5-day retention time is suggested in optimum conditions (Table 2). <br /> <br />Table 2.Effect of retention time on the average removal efficiency <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />HRT(day) <br /> <br /> <br />RE (%) <br /> <br /> <br />Duncan Test<sup>*</sup> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />1 <br /> <br /> <br />84.1 <br /> <br /> <br />A <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />3 <br /> <br /> <br />87.2 <br /> <br /> <br />B <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />5 <br /> <br /> <br />88.1 <br /> <br /> <br />C <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />10 <br /> <br /> <br />88.2 <br /> <br /> <br />C <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />* Different letters indicate significant difference between HRT at the level of P˂0.05. <br /> Similar studies have been done on the lead removal efficiency in constructed wetlands by different researchers and similar results have been obtained, so that the lead removal efficiency was mainly concluded in the range 76 to 95%. Moreover, the formation of insoluble sulfides, filtration of solids and colloids, sedimentation, combining with iron and manganese oxide have been reported as the main process in lead removal from waste water in CWs. In a research conducted in subsurface-flow constructed wetland in a pilot scale by cultivating Typha and Phragmites, similar result was obtained. In this study, the lead concentration of influent was in the range 1-20 mg/l and the removal efficiency was measured in the range of 75-96%. In another research conducted on lead and cadmium, was observed that with the increasing retention time from 2 to 6 days, removal of the heavy metals increased, too and the maximum removal efficiency was 75%. <br /> <br />Bioaccumulation Factor <br />The linear relationship between HRT and bioaccumulation factor (BAF) in the dry tissue of reed was examined. Accordingly, a linear relationship with high correlation coefficient (r<sup>2</sup>=0.988) was obtained based on the equation of in which HRT was hydraulic retention time in day and BAF was lead bioaccumulation factor in mg/kg of dry weight. The results showed that there was a significant relationship between hydraulic retention time and BAF so that with the increasing HRT, absorption of plant root increased up to 116 mg/kg d.w. of root tissue at 10-days HRT. Thus, reed is highly capable of absorbing and accumulating of Pb and plays an important role in the removal of lead in subsurface wetland system. Aquatic plants are among the main biological processes in wetlands because they not only directly absorb oxygen but also make it enter around the root zone which leads to nutrition absorption, oxidation and direct spoilage of contaminations and more activities of microorganisms. Consequently, different plant species play important roles in the heavy metals removal. With regard to the mass balance of lead in wetland, the percentage of bed and plant contribution in the lead removal was calculated, separately. As a result, the contribution of reed in lead removal during four retention times in the range of 8-22% of influent lead from 1 to 10 days, respectively so that the contribution of reed increased in relation to HRT but in contrast, the contribution of bed decreased in the range of 77 to 91% of influent lead. It seemed that the contribution of bed at lower retention time was more effective due to higher HLR and when the hydraulic retention time increased, the storage capacity of bed decreased. Considering that the used bed was made of fine sand and the sand lacked cation exchange capacity (CEC), so the removal mechanisms were mostly biological and physical mechanisms resulted from plant and microorganisms uptake and hydraulic characteristics, therefore with the increasing reed bioaccumulation factor (BAF) in relation to HRT, a decrease in the contribution of bed seems to be reasonable. Biological removal is an important pathway for heavy metal removal in the CWs, it includes plant and microbial uptake. The rate of metal removal by plants varies widely, depending on plant growth rate, plant species and concentration of the heavy metals in the wastewater. Maximum concentration of metals in plants has been observed in under-ground organs. <br /> <br />Conclusions <br /> The relative Concentration of effluent to influent (C/C<sub>0</sub>) decreased significantly due to the increasing HRT and the decreasing HLR from 19.8 to 3.5 cm/day and as a linear relationship with high correlation coefficient (R<sup>2</sup>=0.991). Therefore, the more retention time increased and the surface loading decreased, the more time was provided for chemical and biological processes affecting the lead removal in subsurface wetland system. Moreover, statistical analyses showed that there was a significant difference between removal efficiencies at retention times 1, 3, 5 days (p˂0.05) but there was no significance difference between efficiencies at retention time 5, 10 at 5% level. Therefore, 5-day retention time was suggested in optimum conditions with the removal efficiency 88.1%. Meanwhile, the results of the measurement of reed tissue showed that there was a direct relationship HRT and BAF, so that the more retention time increased, the more bioaccumulation factor increased up to 116 mg/kg d.w. of below organs during experiment period. Moreover, the contribution of reed in the lead removal was in the range of 8-22% of influent lead from 1 to 10 days, respectively so that the contribution of reed increased in relation to retention time. Consequently, reed played an important role in the removal of lead in horizontal subsurface wetland. <br /> https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_53009_e1678a79ab1396a246de435382bb1d21.pdfدانشگاه تهرانJournal of Environmental Studies1025-862040420141222Evaluating the Effects of Solar Radiation Parameter on Radial Growth of Quercus castaneifolia in Astara ForestsEvaluating the Effects of Solar Radiation Parameter on Radial Growth of Quercus castaneifolia in Astara Forests9499605301010.22059/jes.2014.53010FABafrinMaroufi AghdamM. Sc Student of Forestry, Department of Forestry, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Guilan, Iran,MehrdadGhodskhahAssistant Prof. of Forestry, Department of Forestry, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Guilan, Iran,JavadTorkamanAssistant Prof. of Forestry, Department of Forestry, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Guilan, IranSarkhoshKaramzadehM. Sc of Forestry, Natural Resources and Watershed Office of Astara, Astara, IranJournal Article20140610 <br />Introduction <br />Climate change happens due to abnormal changes of climate within the earth’s atmosphere and their consequences. One of the most significant effects of climate change is the irreversible damage to some floral species and forest ecosystems. Tree species reflect the impact of climate changes on their ring width. Generally, tree rings vary in size each year depending upon the environmental conditions or climate variables that the tree experiences. In fact, tree rings are severely dependent on the changes of climate variables. It is considered a basis for “dendrochronology” which is the scientific method of dating based on the analysis of patterns of tree rings or investigation of climate variables effects on tree ring width. Many national and international studies have been conducted on dendrochronology. However, the national researches investigated the effects of temperature and rainfall changes on radial growth of trees. Unfortunately, due to lack of long-term solar radiation data in the most of meteorological stations in Iran, the effect of this parameter on the radial growth of trees has not been studied so far. Meanwhile the solar radiation has a significant effect on the width of tree rings-especially in tolerant shaded species like oak. One of the most important species of trees in Iran is the Oak tree (<em>Quercus castaneifolia</em>), due to its being spread in different areas of the country and its high economic and environmental value. Unfortunately, in recent years, because of climate changes and droughts, and also overcutting of <em>Quercus castaneifolia</em> for wood and live-stokes food supply, this precious species has been subjected to serious threats. In this regard, the role of climate in addition to improper management is significant. To protect <em>Quercus castaneifolia</em>, the first and most important step is the scientific planning of forest management, through knowing the effective parameters of climate change on the growth and physiology of the trees. Therefore, implementation of more research on the oak species and utilizing the results is essential for their protection. <br />By considering the above mentioned facts, to solve the problem related the lack of solar radiation data, in this study, an appropriate methodology was introduced based on empirical formulas for calculating the solar radiation. Thereafter, the incoming solar radiation in the Astara Forests was calculated. In the next step, by using seven discs harvested from <em>Quercus castaneifolia</em> trees, the chronology of this species for each disc in two perpendicular directions was obtained by using LINTAB tool coupled to TSAPWin software. Finally, the relationship between tree ring widths and climate variables was determined. <br /> <br /> <br />Materials and Methods <br />In this research the seven discs were harvested from <em>Quercus castaneifolia</em> trees with mean tree ages of 35 to 78 years in the Astara Forests located in north of Iran. In addition, the climate variables were collected from the synoptic meteorological station of Astara. However, due to financial, technical or institutional limitations, the solar radiation data are absent, incomplete or inaccessible in most areas of the world especially in the developing countries such as Iran. This seriously hinders the progress of forestry researches such as chronology studies that require solar radiation as a key driving input. Therefore, various methods have been explored in order to estimate, with reasonable accuracy, the solar radiation from other available meteorological data. One kind of widely used method is based on empirical relations between solar radiations and commonly measured meteorological variables. Therefore, in this research, Angstrom-Prescott model (Eq. (1)) was selected to estimate the monthly and yearly global solar irradiation (R<sub>s</sub>) in the Astra Forests. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />(1) <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />In the next step, the chronology of each disc in two perpendicular directions was obtained by using LINTAB tool coupled to TSAPWin software. To evaluate the obtained chronology for each disc, the Gleichläufigkeit (GLK), Crossdate Index (CDI), and Signature GLK (GSL) were used. <br /> <br />Results <br />According to published results on determination of a and b parameters of Angstrom-Prescott model for different regions of Iran, 0.404 and 0.204 were selected for Astra Forests district, respectively. Afterwards, using recorded meteorological parameters in Astara Synoptic Station, the monthly and annual global solar irradiation were estimated for Astra Forests during 1985 to 2005 (Fig. 1). <br /> <br /> <br />Fig. 1: Annual and Monthly Average of R<sub>s</sub> <br /> <br />In the next step, the chronology of species for each disc in two perpendicular directions indicated that statistical indexes had appropriate values. Findings showed that the average of chronology for each disc derived from two vertical directions was significant. In the other words, three useful parameters for evaluating the chronology’s quality of all seven discs i.e., GLK, CDI, and GSL were more than 73, 46, and 99.9%, respectively. Thereafter, the average sizes of two perpendicular directions for each of the seven discs were calculated and the chronology of the average values was carried out. Only four of the discs showed proper results according to their indices. Using the chronology of the four discs, the regional chronology of <em>Quercus castaneifolia</em> trees in Astara Forests was calculated (Fig. 2). Ultimately, a statistical relation was determined between the R<sub>s</sub> and the chronology of these trees (Fig.3). <br /> <br /> <br />Fig. 2: Regional chronology of <em>Quercus castaneifolia</em> trees in Astra Forests <br /> <br /> <br />Fig. 3: <em>Quercus castaneifolia</em> trees ring widths vs R<sub>s</sub> <br /> <br />Discussion and Conclusion <br /><em>Quercus castaneifolia</em> tree ring widths vary with R<sub>s</sub> by a second order polynomial function. The R value of this function (-0.71) is proper, which is an indicator of a strong relationship between R<sub>s</sub> and <em>Quercus castaneifolia</em> tree ring widths. The negative value of R shows an inverse relationship, an expected fact which obviously reflects the shade intolerant quality of oak species. According to the similarity of temperature and R<sub>s</sub> and also to the previous studies on the effect of temperature on tree ring widths, which resulted in negative R values, it can be concluded that the findings of the present research are reliable and justified <br />Introduction <br />Climate change happens due to abnormal changes of climate within the earth’s atmosphere and their consequences. One of the most significant effects of climate change is the irreversible damage to some floral species and forest ecosystems. Tree species reflect the impact of climate changes on their ring width. Generally, tree rings vary in size each year depending upon the environmental conditions or climate variables that the tree experiences. In fact, tree rings are severely dependent on the changes of climate variables. It is considered a basis for “dendrochronology” which is the scientific method of dating based on the analysis of patterns of tree rings or investigation of climate variables effects on tree ring width. Many national and international studies have been conducted on dendrochronology. However, the national researches investigated the effects of temperature and rainfall changes on radial growth of trees. Unfortunately, due to lack of long-term solar radiation data in the most of meteorological stations in Iran, the effect of this parameter on the radial growth of trees has not been studied so far. Meanwhile the solar radiation has a significant effect on the width of tree rings-especially in tolerant shaded species like oak. One of the most important species of trees in Iran is the Oak tree (<em>Quercus castaneifolia</em>), due to its being spread in different areas of the country and its high economic and environmental value. Unfortunately, in recent years, because of climate changes and droughts, and also overcutting of <em>Quercus castaneifolia</em> for wood and live-stokes food supply, this precious species has been subjected to serious threats. In this regard, the role of climate in addition to improper management is significant. To protect <em>Quercus castaneifolia</em>, the first and most important step is the scientific planning of forest management, through knowing the effective parameters of climate change on the growth and physiology of the trees. Therefore, implementation of more research on the oak species and utilizing the results is essential for their protection. <br />By considering the above mentioned facts, to solve the problem related the lack of solar radiation data, in this study, an appropriate methodology was introduced based on empirical formulas for calculating the solar radiation. Thereafter, the incoming solar radiation in the Astara Forests was calculated. In the next step, by using seven discs harvested from <em>Quercus castaneifolia</em> trees, the chronology of this species for each disc in two perpendicular directions was obtained by using LINTAB tool coupled to TSAPWin software. Finally, the relationship between tree ring widths and climate variables was determined. <br /> <br /> <br />Materials and Methods <br />In this research the seven discs were harvested from <em>Quercus castaneifolia</em> trees with mean tree ages of 35 to 78 years in the Astara Forests located in north of Iran. In addition, the climate variables were collected from the synoptic meteorological station of Astara. However, due to financial, technical or institutional limitations, the solar radiation data are absent, incomplete or inaccessible in most areas of the world especially in the developing countries such as Iran. This seriously hinders the progress of forestry researches such as chronology studies that require solar radiation as a key driving input. Therefore, various methods have been explored in order to estimate, with reasonable accuracy, the solar radiation from other available meteorological data. One kind of widely used method is based on empirical relations between solar radiations and commonly measured meteorological variables. Therefore, in this research, Angstrom-Prescott model (Eq. (1)) was selected to estimate the monthly and yearly global solar irradiation (R<sub>s</sub>) in the Astra Forests. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />(1) <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />In the next step, the chronology of each disc in two perpendicular directions was obtained by using LINTAB tool coupled to TSAPWin software. To evaluate the obtained chronology for each disc, the Gleichläufigkeit (GLK), Crossdate Index (CDI), and Signature GLK (GSL) were used. <br /> <br />Results <br />According to published results on determination of a and b parameters of Angstrom-Prescott model for different regions of Iran, 0.404 and 0.204 were selected for Astra Forests district, respectively. Afterwards, using recorded meteorological parameters in Astara Synoptic Station, the monthly and annual global solar irradiation were estimated for Astra Forests during 1985 to 2005 (Fig. 1). <br /> <br /> <br />Fig. 1: Annual and Monthly Average of R<sub>s</sub> <br /> <br />In the next step, the chronology of species for each disc in two perpendicular directions indicated that statistical indexes had appropriate values. Findings showed that the average of chronology for each disc derived from two vertical directions was significant. In the other words, three useful parameters for evaluating the chronology’s quality of all seven discs i.e., GLK, CDI, and GSL were more than 73, 46, and 99.9%, respectively. Thereafter, the average sizes of two perpendicular directions for each of the seven discs were calculated and the chronology of the average values was carried out. Only four of the discs showed proper results according to their indices. Using the chronology of the four discs, the regional chronology of <em>Quercus castaneifolia</em> trees in Astara Forests was calculated (Fig. 2). Ultimately, a statistical relation was determined between the R<sub>s</sub> and the chronology of these trees (Fig.3). <br /> <br /> <br />Fig. 2: Regional chronology of <em>Quercus castaneifolia</em> trees in Astra Forests <br /> <br /> <br />Fig. 3: <em>Quercus castaneifolia</em> trees ring widths vs R<sub>s</sub> <br /> <br />Discussion and Conclusion <br /><em>Quercus castaneifolia</em> tree ring widths vary with R<sub>s</sub> by a second order polynomial function. The R value of this function (-0.71) is proper, which is an indicator of a strong relationship between R<sub>s</sub> and <em>Quercus castaneifolia</em> tree ring widths. The negative value of R shows an inverse relationship, an expected fact which obviously reflects the shade intolerant quality of oak species. According to the similarity of temperature and R<sub>s</sub> and also to the previous studies on the effect of temperature on tree ring widths, which resulted in negative R values, it can be concluded that the findings of the present research are reliable and justifiedhttps://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_53010_89e8ef53d6f57479c1db220946fb8cd0.pdfدانشگاه تهرانJournal of Environmental Studies1025-862040420141222Climatic Analysis and Routing of Comprehensive Dust Storms in the South and Center of IranClimatic Analysis and Routing of Comprehensive Dust Storms in the South and Center of Iran9619725301210.22059/jes.2014.53012FAAbbas AliValiAssociate Professor of De-Desertification, Department of Engineering Desert Sciences, Faculty of Natural Resources and Geo Sciences, University of Kashan, Kashan, I.R. IranSajadKhamooshiM.Sc. of De-Desertification, Department of Engineering Desert Sciences, Faculty of Natural Resources and Geo Sciences, University of Kashan, Kashan, I.R. IranSeyed HojjatMousaviAssistant Professor of Geomorphology, Department of Geography and Ecotourism, Faculty of Natural Resources and Geo Sciences, University of Kashan, Kashan, I.RFatemehPanahi- Assistant Professor of De-Desertification, Department of Engineering Desert Sciences, Faculty of Natural Resources and Geo Sciences, University of Kashan, Kashan, I.R.EhsanTamassokiM.Sc. of De-Desertification, University of Hormozgan, Babdar Abbass, I.R. IranJournal Article20140406Introduction <br />Dust storms, one type of dust event, are in most cases the result of turbulent winds, including convective haboobs, which raise large quantities of dust from desert surfaces and reduce visibility to less than 1 km. This dust reaches concentrations in excess of 6000 mg m3 in severe events. The major dust source regions are areas of arid and hyper-arid, with mean annual rainfalls of less than 100 mm. <br />The temporal and spatial investigation of dust storms shows the interference of various factors in their occurrence and expansion. These factors is divided into two groups; environmental and human parameters. The climatic (such as low rainfalls, high evaporation, intense wind, drought and atmospheric general circulation) and geological (for example lithology such as Quarts, Clay, Silicate and feldspar) factors are natural parameters, and factors such as over grassing and crop production, wastage of vegetation, increasing growth of population, battle and political problems are human parameters. <br />Much of the current interest in dust storms relates to their possible role in the systems and subsystems of Earth. Dust loadings may affect air temperatures through the absorption and scattering of solar radiation, may affect cloud formation, and convectional activity, influence sulphur and carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere, and influence geo-chemistry cycle, soil evolution and desertification. <br />Dust storms are one of the destructive climatic phenomena which are affected by various climatic elements such as pressure, precipitation, wind, temperature and evaporation. These phenomena impose much damages to human health, industrial and agricultural installation, population centers and communication ways. The recognition of source regions, creation and expansion style of dust storms and their relation with atmospheric circulation patterns are fundamental factors in reduction of their damages. In recent decades, trend of dust storms has increased in Iran, specially west and southwest areas. This factor is raised the necessity of dust study in these areas more than before. <br />Frequency and intensity of dust storms in west and south west parts of Iran has made this phenomenon one of the most principal environmental hazards in these regions. According to the extent of dust storms and their vast effects on health, economy, environment and agriculture and their increasing trend has drew the attention of many researchers. The recent study is composed of data analysis of dust storm by Iran Meteorological Organization Earth Database, synoptic analysis of weather and climate patterns causing and transmitting dust using middle and upper atmosphere data in Shiraz, Fasa and Bushehr stations and tracking wind packages carrying dust particles using HYSPLIT model by forward and backward methods. <br /> <br />Methodology <br />In the research, environmental and circulatory databases were used to be analyzed the synoptic systems of Comprehensive Dust Storms in the South and Center of Iran. At first, the number of dust days was determined using climatic data of more than 30 synoptic station in a 9-year period, from 2002 to 2009. Then, their circulation patterns were identified and plotted. Also, the circulation patterns of extreme dust days was identified and plotted in the study area. Though, meteorological data, the middle and upper atmosphere data such as the sea level pressure data, level of 500 hPa geo-potential height, wind direction, vertical velocity, surface temperature and the subtropical wind profiles were received from 100-1000 hPa height from NCEP/NCAR database and were drawn for 0-80 longitude and 10-70 latitude using GRADS software. Then, visibility, wind direction and velocity, relative humidity and precipitation were extracted for each day. WRPLOT VIEW VERSION 5.3 software was used for wind rose drawing by wind storms causing direction and speed. HYSPLIT model was used in order to recognize the origin of dust storms and wind flow routing in Shiraz, Fasa and Bushehr stations. <br /> <br />Results and Discussion <br />In recent decades, the global effectiveness of dust storms has become increasingly apparent, so that, major advances have occurred in sources, transport paths and their many impacts both on humans and the environment, their frequency at different time scales. Earth database investigations shows that the year 2008 has one of the most extreme dust storms in terms of visibility reduce and durability of dust storm days in the study period that 2008 June 10 is the most extreme dust storm day with visibility of less than 500 meter in the stations. The mentioned dust storm as one of the most intense dust storms of the recent years can help having a good recognition of atmosphere patterns causing this phenomenon and routing winds transmitting aerosols. <br />The results of the middle and upper atmospheric circulation base shows that west winds occurred in 2008 June 10 with a low pressure center in the East of Iran and high pressure in the North of Africa (Figures 1 & 2). The condition is caused the entrance of dust to the study region. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Fig. 1- map of 500 hPa at 10/6/2008 <br /> <br /> <br />Fig. 2- map of sea level pressure at 10/6/2008 <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />The isothermal map of sea surface represents the ascendancy of 50 degrees curve on the center of Iran and isothermal map of 42.5 degrees on the East Saudi Arabia. Besides, the curves of 40 degrees have dominated on Iraq and Syria which causes temperature increase and drought air in the region. <br />Omega map of sea surface at 2008 June 10 indicates the -0.1 conture in Central regions of Iran which shows the downward air flow in the area. Also, the central core of the upward flow, with 0.2 contour are dominate in the North of Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Syria, which illustrate an air mass with ascending movement in these areas. <br />Patterns related to humidity represent relative humidity of 10% in Iran. Also, specific humidity is very low and is equal to 0.004 which represent minimum rates of humidity and very high drought causing or increasing dust storms in the studied day. <br />The results of wind flow routing by HYSPLIT model showed that the origin of dust storm mass had been North West of Iraq and east of Syria which had entered Iran with a north west-south east direction (figures 3 & 4). <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Fig. 3- map of backward trajectories ending at 10/6/2008 <br /> <br /> <br />Fig. 4- map of forward trajectories starting at 10/6/2008 <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Conclusion <br />The study of circulation patterns transferring dust storms in the South and Center of Iran have abundant importance. For example, the west region of Iran isn’t a source of dust because of natural characteristics such as mountainous areas, high rainfalls and dense vegetation. But, dust storms of this region are non-local. This region is the transport route of climatic systems into Iran, and accepts the most effectiveness from these systems. According to source regions of Iran dust storms which are hyper-arid lands of Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Syria and North Africa, this study is a connective step between large scale circulation patterns and temporal and spatial activities of dust storms in the South and Center of Iran. <br />According to the results of this study which has examined the relationship between large scale synoptic patterns and variety of space-time dust storm activities in Iran using synoptic maps of sea level pressure circulation patterns, 500 hPa geo-potential height, wind direction data, vertical velocity, surface temperature with geo data of dust storms in the studied stations and wind flow routing model, it can be concluded that dynamic models can be presented by consensus of various specialists for this destructive environmental phenomenon. Although, using the capability of satellite imagery and dust storm investigating using them can be of great importance for future studies. In general, the results of this research shows that wind flow routing model and atmosphere studies have the suitable capability for recognition and monitoring of dust storm path.Introduction <br />Dust storms, one type of dust event, are in most cases the result of turbulent winds, including convective haboobs, which raise large quantities of dust from desert surfaces and reduce visibility to less than 1 km. This dust reaches concentrations in excess of 6000 mg m3 in severe events. The major dust source regions are areas of arid and hyper-arid, with mean annual rainfalls of less than 100 mm. <br />The temporal and spatial investigation of dust storms shows the interference of various factors in their occurrence and expansion. These factors is divided into two groups; environmental and human parameters. The climatic (such as low rainfalls, high evaporation, intense wind, drought and atmospheric general circulation) and geological (for example lithology such as Quarts, Clay, Silicate and feldspar) factors are natural parameters, and factors such as over grassing and crop production, wastage of vegetation, increasing growth of population, battle and political problems are human parameters. <br />Much of the current interest in dust storms relates to their possible role in the systems and subsystems of Earth. Dust loadings may affect air temperatures through the absorption and scattering of solar radiation, may affect cloud formation, and convectional activity, influence sulphur and carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere, and influence geo-chemistry cycle, soil evolution and desertification. <br />Dust storms are one of the destructive climatic phenomena which are affected by various climatic elements such as pressure, precipitation, wind, temperature and evaporation. These phenomena impose much damages to human health, industrial and agricultural installation, population centers and communication ways. The recognition of source regions, creation and expansion style of dust storms and their relation with atmospheric circulation patterns are fundamental factors in reduction of their damages. In recent decades, trend of dust storms has increased in Iran, specially west and southwest areas. This factor is raised the necessity of dust study in these areas more than before. <br />Frequency and intensity of dust storms in west and south west parts of Iran has made this phenomenon one of the most principal environmental hazards in these regions. According to the extent of dust storms and their vast effects on health, economy, environment and agriculture and their increasing trend has drew the attention of many researchers. The recent study is composed of data analysis of dust storm by Iran Meteorological Organization Earth Database, synoptic analysis of weather and climate patterns causing and transmitting dust using middle and upper atmosphere data in Shiraz, Fasa and Bushehr stations and tracking wind packages carrying dust particles using HYSPLIT model by forward and backward methods. <br /> <br />Methodology <br />In the research, environmental and circulatory databases were used to be analyzed the synoptic systems of Comprehensive Dust Storms in the South and Center of Iran. At first, the number of dust days was determined using climatic data of more than 30 synoptic station in a 9-year period, from 2002 to 2009. Then, their circulation patterns were identified and plotted. Also, the circulation patterns of extreme dust days was identified and plotted in the study area. Though, meteorological data, the middle and upper atmosphere data such as the sea level pressure data, level of 500 hPa geo-potential height, wind direction, vertical velocity, surface temperature and the subtropical wind profiles were received from 100-1000 hPa height from NCEP/NCAR database and were drawn for 0-80 longitude and 10-70 latitude using GRADS software. Then, visibility, wind direction and velocity, relative humidity and precipitation were extracted for each day. WRPLOT VIEW VERSION 5.3 software was used for wind rose drawing by wind storms causing direction and speed. HYSPLIT model was used in order to recognize the origin of dust storms and wind flow routing in Shiraz, Fasa and Bushehr stations. <br /> <br />Results and Discussion <br />In recent decades, the global effectiveness of dust storms has become increasingly apparent, so that, major advances have occurred in sources, transport paths and their many impacts both on humans and the environment, their frequency at different time scales. Earth database investigations shows that the year 2008 has one of the most extreme dust storms in terms of visibility reduce and durability of dust storm days in the study period that 2008 June 10 is the most extreme dust storm day with visibility of less than 500 meter in the stations. The mentioned dust storm as one of the most intense dust storms of the recent years can help having a good recognition of atmosphere patterns causing this phenomenon and routing winds transmitting aerosols. <br />The results of the middle and upper atmospheric circulation base shows that west winds occurred in 2008 June 10 with a low pressure center in the East of Iran and high pressure in the North of Africa (Figures 1 & 2). The condition is caused the entrance of dust to the study region. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Fig. 1- map of 500 hPa at 10/6/2008 <br /> <br /> <br />Fig. 2- map of sea level pressure at 10/6/2008 <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />The isothermal map of sea surface represents the ascendancy of 50 degrees curve on the center of Iran and isothermal map of 42.5 degrees on the East Saudi Arabia. Besides, the curves of 40 degrees have dominated on Iraq and Syria which causes temperature increase and drought air in the region. <br />Omega map of sea surface at 2008 June 10 indicates the -0.1 conture in Central regions of Iran which shows the downward air flow in the area. Also, the central core of the upward flow, with 0.2 contour are dominate in the North of Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Syria, which illustrate an air mass with ascending movement in these areas. <br />Patterns related to humidity represent relative humidity of 10% in Iran. Also, specific humidity is very low and is equal to 0.004 which represent minimum rates of humidity and very high drought causing or increasing dust storms in the studied day. <br />The results of wind flow routing by HYSPLIT model showed that the origin of dust storm mass had been North West of Iraq and east of Syria which had entered Iran with a north west-south east direction (figures 3 & 4). <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Fig. 3- map of backward trajectories ending at 10/6/2008 <br /> <br /> <br />Fig. 4- map of forward trajectories starting at 10/6/2008 <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Conclusion <br />The study of circulation patterns transferring dust storms in the South and Center of Iran have abundant importance. For example, the west region of Iran isn’t a source of dust because of natural characteristics such as mountainous areas, high rainfalls and dense vegetation. But, dust storms of this region are non-local. This region is the transport route of climatic systems into Iran, and accepts the most effectiveness from these systems. According to source regions of Iran dust storms which are hyper-arid lands of Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Syria and North Africa, this study is a connective step between large scale circulation patterns and temporal and spatial activities of dust storms in the South and Center of Iran. <br />According to the results of this study which has examined the relationship between large scale synoptic patterns and variety of space-time dust storm activities in Iran using synoptic maps of sea level pressure circulation patterns, 500 hPa geo-potential height, wind direction data, vertical velocity, surface temperature with geo data of dust storms in the studied stations and wind flow routing model, it can be concluded that dynamic models can be presented by consensus of various specialists for this destructive environmental phenomenon. Although, using the capability of satellite imagery and dust storm investigating using them can be of great importance for future studies. In general, the results of this research shows that wind flow routing model and atmosphere studies have the suitable capability for recognition and monitoring of dust storm path.https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_53012_14dd7b5f01e1c59dca823e2b57bd04cf.pdfدانشگاه تهرانJournal of Environmental Studies1025-862040420141222Environmental Impact Assessment using Fuzzy logic inference model
(Case study: Kamal Saleh DamEnvironmental Impact Assessment using Fuzzy logic inference model
(Case study: Kamal Saleh Dam9739885301310.22059/jes.2014.53013FAVahidFaramarziMSc, Natural Resources-Environment Engineering, faculty of Natural Resources, Isfahan University of TechnologyAlirezaSoffianianAssociate Professor, Faculty of Natural Resources, Isfahan University of TechnologyJournal Article20140120Introduction <br />Determining the importance of environmental impacts is one of the main issues and concerns in the process of environmental impact assessment (EIA) of projects. Ecological impacts assessment is very complicated and requires estimates and anticipates of all environmental impacts and thus always associated with uncertainty. A major problem in assessment of ecological impacts is that they cannot be formulated in one algorithm, because the vital elements and their interactions cannot be identified completely unambiguous (Crisp). On the other hand the spatial heterogeneity of ecological systems and the complexity of decision making have made the impact assessment more difficult. Therefore, the concept of environmental impacts is often ambiguous. The main problem is that EIA models are incapable of managing qualitative data. Fuzzy inference will avoid these difficulties. Fuzzy logic brings a method for a broad range of objective data, quantitative data, opinions and subjective judgments to a natural language to describe the environmental impacts. Fuzzy logic is an especial, powerful technique for classifying and describing the environmental conditions, with both natural and human origin. Fuzzy logic has the ability to quantify and classify the environmental impacts with subjective nature. The main objective of Fuzzy inference method for EIA is to calculate the significance of effects based on fuzzy logic. In this study, fuzzy logic used to determine and rank the significance of impacts, as a method to assess qualitative data. Thus the performance of fuzzy logic inference method in comparison with mathematical matrix method is discussed. <br />1. vfaramarzy@gmail.com <br />2. soffianian@cc.iut.ac.ir <br /> <br />Materials and Methods <br />Study area <br /> <br />Kamal Saleh dam basin with 49˚ 4ˊ 2˝ to 49˚ 27ˊ 11˝ east longitude and 33˚ 33ˊ 13˝ to 33˚ 55ˊ 55˝ North latitude, with an area of 655 square kilometers, located in south west of Markazi province and North East of Lorestan province in western Iran. This dam has been constructed at a distance of 74 km from the Arak city and 46 km of Shazand city on the Tireh River. <br /> <br />Study Methods <br />Mathematical Matrix Method <br /> <br />In this research, a case study (Kamal Saleh DAM) used to assess the environmental impacts using fuzzy logic as a novel method for the environmental impact assessment. Therefore an evaluation was done by two methods: mathematical matrix and fuzzy logic. The mathematical matrix method was used after indigenization, so that the matrix is composed of two parts: a complementary index and a basic index, each index includes three criteria which include six criteria overall (magnitude <sub>(</sub><em>M<sub>ij)</sub></em>, duration <sub>(</sub><em>D<sub>ij)</sub></em> & occurrence Time <sub>(</sub><em>T<sub>ij) </sub>as </em>basic index parameters<em>,</em> and synergy effects <sub>(</sub><em>S<sub>ij)</sub></em>, cumulative effects <sub>(</sub><em>A<sub>ij)</sub></em> & Probability of occurrence (<em>P<sub>ij</sub></em>) as complementary index parameters) along with the nature of impact (<em>N<sub>ij</sub></em>) showed by + and – symbols which indicate the desirable and undesirable effects of the impact (<em>I<sub>ij</sub></em>), respectively. Finally, using the mentioned mathematical relation, we achieved the importance of each action’s impact on the environment. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />(1) <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />(2) <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />(3) <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Then, the importance of effects classified as very low (VL: 0.2≥X>0.36), low (L: 0. 36≥X>0.52), medium (M: 0.52≥X>0.68), high (H: 0.68≥X>0.84) and very high (VH: 0.84≥X>1). <br />Fuzzy logic study method <br />In the fuzzy logic method, above mentioned mathematical matrix indices were considered as fuzzy inference system's input. Criteria got fuzzificationed and after determination of membership functions similar to the groups of mathematical matrix classification, and forming rule base center the importance of impact calculated by using the center of gravity method as Defuzzzification approach. The output of the fuzzy logic inference actually is the effect of each activity on the environment and ultimately, the efficiency of two mentioned methods was compared for assessment of effect importance. These two methods have quite similar inputs and finally classified outputs which actually is the importance of the impact, were compared. To do this, in mathematical matrix method and fuzzy logic, 6 criteria for 2 indices (complementary index & basic index) were used (magnitude <sub>(</sub><em>M<sub>ij)</sub></em>, duration <sub>(</sub><em>D<sub>ij)</sub></em> & occurrence Time <sub>(</sub><em>T<sub>ij) </sub>as </em>basic index parameters<em>,</em> and synergy effects <sub>(</sub><em>S<sub>ij)</sub></em>, cumulative effects <sub>(</sub><em>A<sub>ij)</sub></em> & probability of occurrence <sub>(</sub><em>P<sub>ij)</sub></em> as complementary index parameters). <br />In the method of fuzzy inference system using Matlab Ver R2012a software and applying Mamadani implication method and use the same mathematical matrix indices as system input was implemented. <br /> <br />Discussion of Results and Conclusions <br />According to the below chart review (Fig.1), the difference in the number of linguistic variables in mathematical matrix and fuzzy methods is obvious. These differences arise from the decision making method in Aristotelian logic and fuzzy logic. In mathematical matrix if the number is placed in border area (high or low range), still belongs to the same range. The importance of the impact calculated based on a mathematical matrix class can create Uncertainty, which is more important in borders of classification (where X is increasing along with the value of impact from very low to very high). i.e. as we move towards increasing the variable X, the value of linguistic variable have increased. This can be seen as several classes in output matrix. For example, if the variable is X=0.53, belongs to medium-class and if variable is X=0.67, still belongs to the same class, even though there has been a major numerical increase; on the other hand, with the increase of 0.01 at 0.67 point, the importance of impact will change from medium to high. <br /> <br /><br clear="ALL" /> Figure 1. Comparing the numeric summation of whole impacts importance (positive and negative) in mathematical matrix and fuzzy logic methods <br /> <br />But fuzzy logic approach solved this problem and its output defined based on membership grade. For example, if the output of fuzzy logic is 0.67, then the fuzzy logic determines a degree of membership for two membership functions, and thus the uncertainty in the mathematical matrix classification, which is acting as a binary logic, would improve. Impact importance of Ȳ=0.67 in fuzzy logic belongs to two membership functions with different membership levels, moderate linguistic variable with 0.06 degree of membership and high linguistic variable with 0.94 membership degree. The concept of environmental impact Assessment is unambiguous and ecological effects cannot be explicitly defined, for this reason the fuzzy logic has a very high performance in formulating the importance of each impact in an appropriate manner. Fuzzy logic is capable of using qualitative criteria or linguistic variables for assessment and solves the problem of the variables formulation and simultaneously is capable to use and synthesis both qualitative and quantitative data derived from environmental assessors. As a result, the fuzzy logic method leads to modification of uncertainty which always is a problem in unambiguous and complicated matters such as EIA. Since one of the main issues in environmental impact assessment (regarding project approval and determination of appropriate corrective solutions) is to define the impact significance correctly; the fuzzy logic with its spectacular capabilities is an appropriate method. Determining the importance of environmental impacts is one of the main issues in the process of environmental impact assessment (EIA). Ecological impacts assessment is very complicated and always associated with uncertainty because the assessment data are often qualitative and common EIA methods are incapable of managing these kind of data.Introduction <br />Determining the importance of environmental impacts is one of the main issues and concerns in the process of environmental impact assessment (EIA) of projects. Ecological impacts assessment is very complicated and requires estimates and anticipates of all environmental impacts and thus always associated with uncertainty. A major problem in assessment of ecological impacts is that they cannot be formulated in one algorithm, because the vital elements and their interactions cannot be identified completely unambiguous (Crisp). On the other hand the spatial heterogeneity of ecological systems and the complexity of decision making have made the impact assessment more difficult. Therefore, the concept of environmental impacts is often ambiguous. The main problem is that EIA models are incapable of managing qualitative data. Fuzzy inference will avoid these difficulties. Fuzzy logic brings a method for a broad range of objective data, quantitative data, opinions and subjective judgments to a natural language to describe the environmental impacts. Fuzzy logic is an especial, powerful technique for classifying and describing the environmental conditions, with both natural and human origin. Fuzzy logic has the ability to quantify and classify the environmental impacts with subjective nature. The main objective of Fuzzy inference method for EIA is to calculate the significance of effects based on fuzzy logic. In this study, fuzzy logic used to determine and rank the significance of impacts, as a method to assess qualitative data. Thus the performance of fuzzy logic inference method in comparison with mathematical matrix method is discussed. <br />1. vfaramarzy@gmail.com <br />2. soffianian@cc.iut.ac.ir <br /> <br />Materials and Methods <br />Study area <br /> <br />Kamal Saleh dam basin with 49˚ 4ˊ 2˝ to 49˚ 27ˊ 11˝ east longitude and 33˚ 33ˊ 13˝ to 33˚ 55ˊ 55˝ North latitude, with an area of 655 square kilometers, located in south west of Markazi province and North East of Lorestan province in western Iran. This dam has been constructed at a distance of 74 km from the Arak city and 46 km of Shazand city on the Tireh River. <br /> <br />Study Methods <br />Mathematical Matrix Method <br /> <br />In this research, a case study (Kamal Saleh DAM) used to assess the environmental impacts using fuzzy logic as a novel method for the environmental impact assessment. Therefore an evaluation was done by two methods: mathematical matrix and fuzzy logic. The mathematical matrix method was used after indigenization, so that the matrix is composed of two parts: a complementary index and a basic index, each index includes three criteria which include six criteria overall (magnitude <sub>(</sub><em>M<sub>ij)</sub></em>, duration <sub>(</sub><em>D<sub>ij)</sub></em> & occurrence Time <sub>(</sub><em>T<sub>ij) </sub>as </em>basic index parameters<em>,</em> and synergy effects <sub>(</sub><em>S<sub>ij)</sub></em>, cumulative effects <sub>(</sub><em>A<sub>ij)</sub></em> & Probability of occurrence (<em>P<sub>ij</sub></em>) as complementary index parameters) along with the nature of impact (<em>N<sub>ij</sub></em>) showed by + and – symbols which indicate the desirable and undesirable effects of the impact (<em>I<sub>ij</sub></em>), respectively. Finally, using the mentioned mathematical relation, we achieved the importance of each action’s impact on the environment. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />(1) <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />(2) <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />(3) <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Then, the importance of effects classified as very low (VL: 0.2≥X>0.36), low (L: 0. 36≥X>0.52), medium (M: 0.52≥X>0.68), high (H: 0.68≥X>0.84) and very high (VH: 0.84≥X>1). <br />Fuzzy logic study method <br />In the fuzzy logic method, above mentioned mathematical matrix indices were considered as fuzzy inference system's input. Criteria got fuzzificationed and after determination of membership functions similar to the groups of mathematical matrix classification, and forming rule base center the importance of impact calculated by using the center of gravity method as Defuzzzification approach. The output of the fuzzy logic inference actually is the effect of each activity on the environment and ultimately, the efficiency of two mentioned methods was compared for assessment of effect importance. These two methods have quite similar inputs and finally classified outputs which actually is the importance of the impact, were compared. To do this, in mathematical matrix method and fuzzy logic, 6 criteria for 2 indices (complementary index & basic index) were used (magnitude <sub>(</sub><em>M<sub>ij)</sub></em>, duration <sub>(</sub><em>D<sub>ij)</sub></em> & occurrence Time <sub>(</sub><em>T<sub>ij) </sub>as </em>basic index parameters<em>,</em> and synergy effects <sub>(</sub><em>S<sub>ij)</sub></em>, cumulative effects <sub>(</sub><em>A<sub>ij)</sub></em> & probability of occurrence <sub>(</sub><em>P<sub>ij)</sub></em> as complementary index parameters). <br />In the method of fuzzy inference system using Matlab Ver R2012a software and applying Mamadani implication method and use the same mathematical matrix indices as system input was implemented. <br /> <br />Discussion of Results and Conclusions <br />According to the below chart review (Fig.1), the difference in the number of linguistic variables in mathematical matrix and fuzzy methods is obvious. These differences arise from the decision making method in Aristotelian logic and fuzzy logic. In mathematical matrix if the number is placed in border area (high or low range), still belongs to the same range. The importance of the impact calculated based on a mathematical matrix class can create Uncertainty, which is more important in borders of classification (where X is increasing along with the value of impact from very low to very high). i.e. as we move towards increasing the variable X, the value of linguistic variable have increased. This can be seen as several classes in output matrix. For example, if the variable is X=0.53, belongs to medium-class and if variable is X=0.67, still belongs to the same class, even though there has been a major numerical increase; on the other hand, with the increase of 0.01 at 0.67 point, the importance of impact will change from medium to high. <br /> <br /><br clear="ALL" /> Figure 1. Comparing the numeric summation of whole impacts importance (positive and negative) in mathematical matrix and fuzzy logic methods <br /> <br />But fuzzy logic approach solved this problem and its output defined based on membership grade. For example, if the output of fuzzy logic is 0.67, then the fuzzy logic determines a degree of membership for two membership functions, and thus the uncertainty in the mathematical matrix classification, which is acting as a binary logic, would improve. Impact importance of Ȳ=0.67 in fuzzy logic belongs to two membership functions with different membership levels, moderate linguistic variable with 0.06 degree of membership and high linguistic variable with 0.94 membership degree. The concept of environmental impact Assessment is unambiguous and ecological effects cannot be explicitly defined, for this reason the fuzzy logic has a very high performance in formulating the importance of each impact in an appropriate manner. Fuzzy logic is capable of using qualitative criteria or linguistic variables for assessment and solves the problem of the variables formulation and simultaneously is capable to use and synthesis both qualitative and quantitative data derived from environmental assessors. As a result, the fuzzy logic method leads to modification of uncertainty which always is a problem in unambiguous and complicated matters such as EIA. Since one of the main issues in environmental impact assessment (regarding project approval and determination of appropriate corrective solutions) is to define the impact significance correctly; the fuzzy logic with its spectacular capabilities is an appropriate method. Determining the importance of environmental impacts is one of the main issues in the process of environmental impact assessment (EIA). Ecological impacts assessment is very complicated and always associated with uncertainty because the assessment data are often qualitative and common EIA methods are incapable of managing these kind of data.https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_53013_c6d047279865967a3360905d55cb9c6b.pdfدانشگاه تهرانJournal of Environmental Studies1025-862040420141222Participation of Environmental NGOs in Conservational Activities: evidences from Kani Barazan Wetland in MahabadParticipation of Environmental NGOs in Conservational Activities: evidences from Kani Barazan Wetland in Mahabad9899975301410.22059/jes.2014.53014FASeyadYosef HejaziProfessor, Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, Faculty of Agricultural Economics and Development, University of TehranIsmaelAhangariM.S. Student, Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, Faculty of Agricultural Economics and Development, University of TehranMortezaHadaviM.S. Student, Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, Faculty of Agricultural Economics and Development, University of TehranJournal Article20140327 <br />Introduction <br />Today, human society is faces to the tremendous challenge such as the environmental problems, so if the same process continues and serious efforts not pay to resolve this crisis, it will turn into a disaster. Although NGOs have a long history but unfortunately have not found a suitable place in the area of environment and natural resources yet and always there is one concern: what factors attract people to participate in environmental activities effectively. <br />On the one hand, because of uncontrolled use and application of natural areas without any special plan, the rate of degradation and exploitation of these resources is much greater than the renewal of them and this issue has destroyed a wide range of resources. Therefore, strategy formulation for conservation and sustainable use of these resources as a fundamental necessity is felt more than ever. <br /> On the other hand, environmental problems have become pervasive global crisis and if we do not an act to solve this problem, human will be faced with an enormous disaster. Fiftieth principle of Iran's constitution and fourth program of Economic, Social and Cultural Development that has emphasized the environmental protection is the Criterion for national and community participation to protect the country's environmental assets. According to these issue, in recent years, public participation in environment decision making at the regional, national and international level is institutionalized increasingly. <br />Participation is a result of a dynamic process in which the person knows his/her real requests and his/her society requests well and is bringing himself and community activities without any feeling of pressure and has a feeling commitment to them. Participation as a goal, as well as a dynamic activity that enables people to increase their role in development activities. In this type of partnership, each individual has right to express and intervene in processes of making decisions about his or her own live. Participation is an instrument for expand the purposes, ideological and normative development, like equality and democracy. <br />Wetlands can be called the most beautiful aspects of life in the world. The combination of onshore and offshore ecosystems leads to the emergence of "Wetland" or "wetlands". These critical environments are the most fertile, complex and sensitive Earth habitats. Wetlands Commission in 1362 is defined "wetland” as follows: <br />Wetland is area of the natural manifestation of God's that in the process of emergence, the soil becomes saturated by surface water and groundwater and in the time is formed with normal and environmental conditions and has biological sequences. <br />This ecosystem includes the communities of plants and animals that able to be adapting to the particular ecological conditions Wetlands are considered as natural and untouched and pristine. To most people, prefer the peace of a wetland to the mountains and deserts and deltas. Many plants and animals of the wetlands caused attracting the attention of people. Nature enthusiasts know that wetland even has mental healing value. <br /> In this relationship the role of non-governmental organizations in protecting natural resources and the environment is an undeniable role. But to clarify the situation that shows the importance of this role, we need to systematic research. Therefore this study aimed at investigation the factors effecting on participation of environmental NGO’s in conservational activities. <br />In present study, we emphasize on non-governmental organization which active in the area of Kani Barazan Wetland. Three NGOs are active around of Kani Barazan Wetland. Therefore the main problem of this study is identify the main factors that effect on the mount of members participation in concept of wetland protection. <br /> <br />Materials & Methods: <br /> A descriptive – correlation study was conducted and data were collected through a survey. The study population were the members of three active NGO’s in the field of environmental protection of Mahabad’s Kani Barazan wetland (N = 120) that 92 people of them were selected as the sample. In this study, the factors affecting participation were assessed in five categories, including informational factor, economic factor, cultural factor, motivational and managerial factors. <br />A questionnaire was designed to collecting research data. Its validity was confirmed by a panel of experts (Faculty members and PhD and MSc students of Department of Agricultural Extension and Education of Tehran University). The Cronbach's alpha coefficient was used to assess the reliability and values ranged were more than 0.7 for each part of questionnaire that indicates its reliability was appropriate. 92 questionnaires were distributed among the participants to data collecting. After that 85 of them finally were used. To data analysis SPSS<sub>21</sub> software was applied. To investigate the participation rate of conservation measures between male and female, the mean comparison was performed by using Student's t test. <br /> <br /> Discussion & Conclusion: <br />The results indicated that there is a significant difference between male and female and degree of participation (t = 2.937). To determine the effects of variables on participation rates, stepwise regression analysis was used. Stepwise approach is a method in which the most powerful variables respectively enter the regression equation and this continues until the significance test error reaches 5%. In this study, after entering the variables that were significantly correlated with the dependent variable (participation in conservation measures), Equation, went to 4 steps. Therefore, the variables of economic factor, informational factor, cultural factor and management factor respectively were entered into regression analyzes (table 1). <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Table 1: results of stepwise regression analysis <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Variable <br /> <br /> <br />B <br /> <br /> <br />Beta <br /> <br /> <br />t <br /> <br /> <br />Sig. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Constant <br />F<sub>1</sub>: economic factor <br />F<sub>2</sub>: informational factor <br />F<sub>3</sub>: cultural factor <br />F<sub>4</sub>: management factor <br /> <br /> <br />5/466 <br />1/142 <br />1/187 <br />0/774 <br />0/415 <br /> <br /> <br />- <br />0/504 <br />0/488 <br />0/251 <br />0/144 <br /> <br /> <br />5/217 <br />8/150 <br />7/966 <br />4/134 <br />2/349 <br /> <br /> <br />0/000 <br />0/000 <br />0/000 <br />0/000 <br />0/021 <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />According to the results presented in Table 4, the linear equation of regression is as follows: <br />R<sup>2</sup>= 0/711 <br />Y= 5/466 + 1/142 F1 + 1/187 F<sub>2 </sub>+ 0/744F<sub>3</sub> + 0/415 F<sub>4</sub> <br /> <br />The results showed that 71.1 percent of participation variance was determined by these variables. According to the values that obtained for the Beta, independent variables that respectively have the greatest effect on the participation rate are: economic factor, informational factor, cultural factor and management factor. <br />Conclusion and Recommendations: <br />Based on the results, there is a negative and significant difference between male and female in line of participation rates at the one percent level. Also significant relationship between age and participation rate at the one percent level was observed. These results are consistent with research findings of some of scientists. <br />Since the informational factor in this study, showed significant and positive effect on participation in environmental activities and this is consistent with the results of past studies, therefor, to help people be familiar with the principles and objectives of participation, activities such as exhibitions and conferences in the field of environmental pollution control and how they fight, training workshops should be done. <br />Another factor in this study is shown significant effect was cultural factor. This factor contains items such as having a spirit of cooperation among community members, Collective decision making in cooperative and public encourage toward the movement of participation. <br /> Also management is another factor that has a significant effect on participation in environmental protection of wetlands that is consistent with the study results of some studies has been conducted before. Therefore, improvement the management mechanisms from government and on behalf of wetlands Board members, can be followed effective results. <br />Another factor that has a significant impact on the participation is economic factor. Therefore, with regard to the results, this recommended that characteristics and their cultural and economic structure and level of their knowledge as well as their age should be carefully identificated and evaluated. <br />We can apply this gained information in future planning in order to increase participation in conservation measures. Since the rate of women's participation in conservation activities reported less than men, therefore, we must create necessary cultural and motivational background for increasing women's participation by doing measures such as festivals and seminars holding and providing educational services. Extension trainings, can provide people's information needs for improvement their science and knowledge level in the field of environmental protection <br />Introduction <br />Today, human society is faces to the tremendous challenge such as the environmental problems, so if the same process continues and serious efforts not pay to resolve this crisis, it will turn into a disaster. Although NGOs have a long history but unfortunately have not found a suitable place in the area of environment and natural resources yet and always there is one concern: what factors attract people to participate in environmental activities effectively. <br />On the one hand, because of uncontrolled use and application of natural areas without any special plan, the rate of degradation and exploitation of these resources is much greater than the renewal of them and this issue has destroyed a wide range of resources. Therefore, strategy formulation for conservation and sustainable use of these resources as a fundamental necessity is felt more than ever. <br /> On the other hand, environmental problems have become pervasive global crisis and if we do not an act to solve this problem, human will be faced with an enormous disaster. Fiftieth principle of Iran's constitution and fourth program of Economic, Social and Cultural Development that has emphasized the environmental protection is the Criterion for national and community participation to protect the country's environmental assets. According to these issue, in recent years, public participation in environment decision making at the regional, national and international level is institutionalized increasingly. <br />Participation is a result of a dynamic process in which the person knows his/her real requests and his/her society requests well and is bringing himself and community activities without any feeling of pressure and has a feeling commitment to them. Participation as a goal, as well as a dynamic activity that enables people to increase their role in development activities. In this type of partnership, each individual has right to express and intervene in processes of making decisions about his or her own live. Participation is an instrument for expand the purposes, ideological and normative development, like equality and democracy. <br />Wetlands can be called the most beautiful aspects of life in the world. The combination of onshore and offshore ecosystems leads to the emergence of "Wetland" or "wetlands". These critical environments are the most fertile, complex and sensitive Earth habitats. Wetlands Commission in 1362 is defined "wetland” as follows: <br />Wetland is area of the natural manifestation of God's that in the process of emergence, the soil becomes saturated by surface water and groundwater and in the time is formed with normal and environmental conditions and has biological sequences. <br />This ecosystem includes the communities of plants and animals that able to be adapting to the particular ecological conditions Wetlands are considered as natural and untouched and pristine. To most people, prefer the peace of a wetland to the mountains and deserts and deltas. Many plants and animals of the wetlands caused attracting the attention of people. Nature enthusiasts know that wetland even has mental healing value. <br /> In this relationship the role of non-governmental organizations in protecting natural resources and the environment is an undeniable role. But to clarify the situation that shows the importance of this role, we need to systematic research. Therefore this study aimed at investigation the factors effecting on participation of environmental NGO’s in conservational activities. <br />In present study, we emphasize on non-governmental organization which active in the area of Kani Barazan Wetland. Three NGOs are active around of Kani Barazan Wetland. Therefore the main problem of this study is identify the main factors that effect on the mount of members participation in concept of wetland protection. <br /> <br />Materials & Methods: <br /> A descriptive – correlation study was conducted and data were collected through a survey. The study population were the members of three active NGO’s in the field of environmental protection of Mahabad’s Kani Barazan wetland (N = 120) that 92 people of them were selected as the sample. In this study, the factors affecting participation were assessed in five categories, including informational factor, economic factor, cultural factor, motivational and managerial factors. <br />A questionnaire was designed to collecting research data. Its validity was confirmed by a panel of experts (Faculty members and PhD and MSc students of Department of Agricultural Extension and Education of Tehran University). The Cronbach's alpha coefficient was used to assess the reliability and values ranged were more than 0.7 for each part of questionnaire that indicates its reliability was appropriate. 92 questionnaires were distributed among the participants to data collecting. After that 85 of them finally were used. To data analysis SPSS<sub>21</sub> software was applied. To investigate the participation rate of conservation measures between male and female, the mean comparison was performed by using Student's t test. <br /> <br /> Discussion & Conclusion: <br />The results indicated that there is a significant difference between male and female and degree of participation (t = 2.937). To determine the effects of variables on participation rates, stepwise regression analysis was used. Stepwise approach is a method in which the most powerful variables respectively enter the regression equation and this continues until the significance test error reaches 5%. In this study, after entering the variables that were significantly correlated with the dependent variable (participation in conservation measures), Equation, went to 4 steps. Therefore, the variables of economic factor, informational factor, cultural factor and management factor respectively were entered into regression analyzes (table 1). <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Table 1: results of stepwise regression analysis <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Variable <br /> <br /> <br />B <br /> <br /> <br />Beta <br /> <br /> <br />t <br /> <br /> <br />Sig. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Constant <br />F<sub>1</sub>: economic factor <br />F<sub>2</sub>: informational factor <br />F<sub>3</sub>: cultural factor <br />F<sub>4</sub>: management factor <br /> <br /> <br />5/466 <br />1/142 <br />1/187 <br />0/774 <br />0/415 <br /> <br /> <br />- <br />0/504 <br />0/488 <br />0/251 <br />0/144 <br /> <br /> <br />5/217 <br />8/150 <br />7/966 <br />4/134 <br />2/349 <br /> <br /> <br />0/000 <br />0/000 <br />0/000 <br />0/000 <br />0/021 <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />According to the results presented in Table 4, the linear equation of regression is as follows: <br />R<sup>2</sup>= 0/711 <br />Y= 5/466 + 1/142 F1 + 1/187 F<sub>2 </sub>+ 0/744F<sub>3</sub> + 0/415 F<sub>4</sub> <br /> <br />The results showed that 71.1 percent of participation variance was determined by these variables. According to the values that obtained for the Beta, independent variables that respectively have the greatest effect on the participation rate are: economic factor, informational factor, cultural factor and management factor. <br />Conclusion and Recommendations: <br />Based on the results, there is a negative and significant difference between male and female in line of participation rates at the one percent level. Also significant relationship between age and participation rate at the one percent level was observed. These results are consistent with research findings of some of scientists. <br />Since the informational factor in this study, showed significant and positive effect on participation in environmental activities and this is consistent with the results of past studies, therefor, to help people be familiar with the principles and objectives of participation, activities such as exhibitions and conferences in the field of environmental pollution control and how they fight, training workshops should be done. <br />Another factor in this study is shown significant effect was cultural factor. This factor contains items such as having a spirit of cooperation among community members, Collective decision making in cooperative and public encourage toward the movement of participation. <br /> Also management is another factor that has a significant effect on participation in environmental protection of wetlands that is consistent with the study results of some studies has been conducted before. Therefore, improvement the management mechanisms from government and on behalf of wetlands Board members, can be followed effective results. <br />Another factor that has a significant impact on the participation is economic factor. Therefore, with regard to the results, this recommended that characteristics and their cultural and economic structure and level of their knowledge as well as their age should be carefully identificated and evaluated. <br />We can apply this gained information in future planning in order to increase participation in conservation measures. Since the rate of women's participation in conservation activities reported less than men, therefore, we must create necessary cultural and motivational background for increasing women's participation by doing measures such as festivals and seminars holding and providing educational services. Extension trainings, can provide people's information needs for improvement their science and knowledge level in the field of environmental protectionhttps://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_53014_d0b862da75cf0cbcbd53302b2d67ca80.pdfدانشگاه تهرانJournal of Environmental Studies1025-862040420141222Economic valuation of recyclable metals of electronic wastes
Case study: 6th district of TehranEconomic valuation of recyclable metals of electronic wastes
Case study: 6th district of Tehran99910095301510.22059/jes.2014.53015FAAmirHedayati AghmashhadiPhD student of Environmental Planning, University of Tehran, Tehran IranHamidrezaJafariProfessor of Environmental Planning and Management, University of Tehran, Tehran Iran0000-0002-4376-1016ShahoKaramiPhD student of Environmental Education, University of Payam Noor, Tehran, IranSamanGalalizadehMSC of Environmental Planning and Management, University of Tehran, Tehran, IranSamanehZahediPhD student of Environmental Management, University of Islamic Azad University Branch of Science and Research, Tehran IranJournal Article20140420Introduction <br />In general and based on a simple division, the e-wastes can be considered as a subset of municipal solid waste which combines homemade, administrative, commercial and industrial wastes. Therefore, the electronic wastes have become one of the most important issues for global community. Because of much increasing of these wastes, collection and recycling of them are necessary. In economic terms, electronic waste recycling has high potential and today recycling of such material is considered as a profitable business for many credible firms such as Bodian in Sweden, Vias in Norway and Catriana in England. <br />Some studies, have been done to predict the e-waste production. Based on their proposed model, the time series of lifetime are used to estimate the e-waste production. In fact, they predicted lifetime process based on life cycle and disposal of electronic waste. <br />Material and methods <br />Case study <br />The case study of this article is 6th district one of the oldest areas of Tehran located in the city center. The area of this region is 2138.45 hectare that covers about 3.3% of the total area of city. <br />Analysis Method <br />Calculation of e-waste production <br />As mentioned, the 6th district was chosen as statistical society where the population is estimated about 215900 thousand people in 2012. Also the population growth rate of this district is -0.1. Accordingly, the population was calculated for 2021 using population estimation formula (equation 1). <br /> (1) P<sub>t</sub>= p<sub>0</sub> (1+r<sub>0</sub>)<sup>n</sup> <br />Where P<sub>t</sub> is the final population, p<sub>0</sub> is the initial population, r<sub>0</sub> is rate of growth and n is the number of years. <br />Using the information and from equation 1 we have that <br />P<sub>2021</sub>= 217000 [(1+(- 0.1)]<sup>17</sup>=213750 <br />Sample size was calculated 380 people using Cochran`s formula with confidence level 95% and allowable sampling error 5%. These people were selected from residential, recreational, administrative and commercial centers by random cluster model. <br />- The e-waste production capita for 6th district of Tehran in 2011 <br /><em>- the electronic waste generated by the statistical sample ÷ the number of statistical sample</em><em>𝗑</em><em>the average number of family members = 5653÷(380</em><em>𝗑</em><em>4.3)=3.45</em> <br />- The e-waste production capita for 6th district of Tehran in 2021 <br />- <em>the electronic waste generated by the statistical sample ÷ the number of statistical sample</em><em>𝗑</em><em>the average number of family members = 8763÷(380</em><em>𝗑</em><em>4.3)=5.36</em> <br />- Total e-waste of 6th district in 2012 <br />Total population of 6th district in 2012 𝗑 production capita = 215900 𝗑 3.45 = 744855 <br />- Total e-waste of 6th district in 2021 <br />Total population of 6th district in 2021 𝗑 production capita = 213750 𝗑 5.36 = 1145700 <br />Then, the contribution of each metal such iron, aluminum and copper in total wastes should be calculated. For this purpose, first e-waste components and the share of them are determined and finally table 1 show economic value of metals contained in e-waste for 6th district. <br />Results <br />The weight of iron, aluminum and copper in e-waste for 6th district <br />Table (1): economic value of metals contained in e-waste for 6<sup>th</sup> district <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />metal <br /> <br /> <br />production in 2012 <br /> <br /> <br />Economic value for each ton of metal in London Metal Exchange on July 2012 <br /> <br /> <br />Total economic value <br /> <br /> <br />Production in 2021 (ton) <br /> <br /> <br />Economic value for each ton of metal in London Metal Exchange on October 2012* <br /> <br /> <br />Economic value in 2021 <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Iron <br /> <br /> <br />357 <br /> <br /> <br />136 <br /> <br /> <br />48552 <br /> <br /> <br />569 <br /> <br /> <br />151 <br /> <br /> <br />85919 <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Aluminum <br /> <br /> <br />35 <br /> <br /> <br />1832 <br /> <br /> <br />64120 <br /> <br /> <br />54 <br /> <br /> <br />1992 <br /> <br /> <br />107568 <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />copper <br /> <br /> <br />52 <br /> <br /> <br />7421 <br /> <br /> <br />385892 <br /> <br /> <br />80 <br /> <br /> <br />8210 <br /> <br /> <br />656800 <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Sum of the total economic value in 2012= 498564$ <br /> <br /> <br />Sum of the total economic value in 2021= 850287$ <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />* Given that the prices of these metals for 2021 are not available, assuming the price is fixed until the year 2021, the prices of these metals in October 2021 have been considered. <br />(Source, Authors) <br /> <br />Conclusion <br />Electronic waste is a new kind of municipal solid waste that attracted many attentions in the last decade, as based on the United Nation Environmental Program (UNEP); Electronic waste has fastest growing waste streams among other kinds of municipal solid waste. <br />Two aspects of Electronic Wastes are more important than of other aspects. One of them is so existent of heavy metals and materials in the Electronic waste such as nickel, cadmium, lead and etc. that without recycling or informal recycling of these materials can damage to the environment and humans body. These materials contain 2.7% of Electronic Wastes weight. <br />Also therefore existence of valuable and recyclable materials such as gold, silver, aluminum, copper, iron and etc. in the electronic waste has caused the electronic waste to be called as urban mines. Also the valuable metals that exist in the Electronic Wastes include 60% of Electronic Waste weight. <br />This study estimated the total economic value of the metals iron, aluminum and copper in electronic waste generated in the 6th district of Tehran in 1392 and forecast for the year 1402 was shown that these wastes was very valuable to waste and should be recycled and used. To control and manage large quantities of e-waste, We needs to integrated electronic waste management system that shown in the fig 1. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Fig (1): comprehensive e-waste management system (Source, Authors) <br />This system is a combination of waste streams, waste collection, recycling and disposal methods, that its aim is achieving to the environmental benefits, economic utility and social acceptability. Such system will be leads to a waste management system applicable in each area. <br />But to achieve to such system, we needs to consider all stakeholders and influential in the production and management of electronic wastes are to consider the role of public, private and public sectors in the management of electronic waste, environmental issues economical for the public and in particular.Introduction <br />In general and based on a simple division, the e-wastes can be considered as a subset of municipal solid waste which combines homemade, administrative, commercial and industrial wastes. Therefore, the electronic wastes have become one of the most important issues for global community. Because of much increasing of these wastes, collection and recycling of them are necessary. In economic terms, electronic waste recycling has high potential and today recycling of such material is considered as a profitable business for many credible firms such as Bodian in Sweden, Vias in Norway and Catriana in England. <br />Some studies, have been done to predict the e-waste production. Based on their proposed model, the time series of lifetime are used to estimate the e-waste production. In fact, they predicted lifetime process based on life cycle and disposal of electronic waste. <br />Material and methods <br />Case study <br />The case study of this article is 6th district one of the oldest areas of Tehran located in the city center. The area of this region is 2138.45 hectare that covers about 3.3% of the total area of city. <br />Analysis Method <br />Calculation of e-waste production <br />As mentioned, the 6th district was chosen as statistical society where the population is estimated about 215900 thousand people in 2012. Also the population growth rate of this district is -0.1. Accordingly, the population was calculated for 2021 using population estimation formula (equation 1). <br /> (1) P<sub>t</sub>= p<sub>0</sub> (1+r<sub>0</sub>)<sup>n</sup> <br />Where P<sub>t</sub> is the final population, p<sub>0</sub> is the initial population, r<sub>0</sub> is rate of growth and n is the number of years. <br />Using the information and from equation 1 we have that <br />P<sub>2021</sub>= 217000 [(1+(- 0.1)]<sup>17</sup>=213750 <br />Sample size was calculated 380 people using Cochran`s formula with confidence level 95% and allowable sampling error 5%. These people were selected from residential, recreational, administrative and commercial centers by random cluster model. <br />- The e-waste production capita for 6th district of Tehran in 2011 <br /><em>- the electronic waste generated by the statistical sample ÷ the number of statistical sample</em><em>𝗑</em><em>the average number of family members = 5653÷(380</em><em>𝗑</em><em>4.3)=3.45</em> <br />- The e-waste production capita for 6th district of Tehran in 2021 <br />- <em>the electronic waste generated by the statistical sample ÷ the number of statistical sample</em><em>𝗑</em><em>the average number of family members = 8763÷(380</em><em>𝗑</em><em>4.3)=5.36</em> <br />- Total e-waste of 6th district in 2012 <br />Total population of 6th district in 2012 𝗑 production capita = 215900 𝗑 3.45 = 744855 <br />- Total e-waste of 6th district in 2021 <br />Total population of 6th district in 2021 𝗑 production capita = 213750 𝗑 5.36 = 1145700 <br />Then, the contribution of each metal such iron, aluminum and copper in total wastes should be calculated. For this purpose, first e-waste components and the share of them are determined and finally table 1 show economic value of metals contained in e-waste for 6th district. <br />Results <br />The weight of iron, aluminum and copper in e-waste for 6th district <br />Table (1): economic value of metals contained in e-waste for 6<sup>th</sup> district <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />metal <br /> <br /> <br />production in 2012 <br /> <br /> <br />Economic value for each ton of metal in London Metal Exchange on July 2012 <br /> <br /> <br />Total economic value <br /> <br /> <br />Production in 2021 (ton) <br /> <br /> <br />Economic value for each ton of metal in London Metal Exchange on October 2012* <br /> <br /> <br />Economic value in 2021 <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Iron <br /> <br /> <br />357 <br /> <br /> <br />136 <br /> <br /> <br />48552 <br /> <br /> <br />569 <br /> <br /> <br />151 <br /> <br /> <br />85919 <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Aluminum <br /> <br /> <br />35 <br /> <br /> <br />1832 <br /> <br /> <br />64120 <br /> <br /> <br />54 <br /> <br /> <br />1992 <br /> <br /> <br />107568 <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />copper <br /> <br /> <br />52 <br /> <br /> <br />7421 <br /> <br /> <br />385892 <br /> <br /> <br />80 <br /> <br /> <br />8210 <br /> <br /> <br />656800 <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Sum of the total economic value in 2012= 498564$ <br /> <br /> <br />Sum of the total economic value in 2021= 850287$ <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />* Given that the prices of these metals for 2021 are not available, assuming the price is fixed until the year 2021, the prices of these metals in October 2021 have been considered. <br />(Source, Authors) <br /> <br />Conclusion <br />Electronic waste is a new kind of municipal solid waste that attracted many attentions in the last decade, as based on the United Nation Environmental Program (UNEP); Electronic waste has fastest growing waste streams among other kinds of municipal solid waste. <br />Two aspects of Electronic Wastes are more important than of other aspects. One of them is so existent of heavy metals and materials in the Electronic waste such as nickel, cadmium, lead and etc. that without recycling or informal recycling of these materials can damage to the environment and humans body. These materials contain 2.7% of Electronic Wastes weight. <br />Also therefore existence of valuable and recyclable materials such as gold, silver, aluminum, copper, iron and etc. in the electronic waste has caused the electronic waste to be called as urban mines. Also the valuable metals that exist in the Electronic Wastes include 60% of Electronic Waste weight. <br />This study estimated the total economic value of the metals iron, aluminum and copper in electronic waste generated in the 6th district of Tehran in 1392 and forecast for the year 1402 was shown that these wastes was very valuable to waste and should be recycled and used. To control and manage large quantities of e-waste, We needs to integrated electronic waste management system that shown in the fig 1. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Fig (1): comprehensive e-waste management system (Source, Authors) <br />This system is a combination of waste streams, waste collection, recycling and disposal methods, that its aim is achieving to the environmental benefits, economic utility and social acceptability. Such system will be leads to a waste management system applicable in each area. <br />But to achieve to such system, we needs to consider all stakeholders and influential in the production and management of electronic wastes are to consider the role of public, private and public sectors in the management of electronic waste, environmental issues economical for the public and in particular.https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_53015_15f37be8dbebd0477fe380744005e2e3.pdfدانشگاه تهرانJournal of Environmental Studies1025-862040420141222The impact of optimizing energy consumption on indoor air quality
Case Study: Educational BuildingThe impact of optimizing energy consumption on indoor air quality
Case Study: Educational Building101110215301610.22059/jes.2014.53016FAFarzanehMahlabGraduate student, Environmental Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering, University of TehranMajidShafiepoorAssistant Professor, Environmental Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering University of Tehran,Journal Article20140126
Introduction
Reducing and optimizing energy consumption and consequently environmental pollution reductions, besides improving building performance providing occupants comfort conditions, make the building's concept closer to the concept of green building and sustainability. Once the decision to build green has been made, one of the first steps in the green design process is to establish firm environmental goals for the project.
In recent years, much research in the field of energy efficiency in buildings has been carried out. Also indoor air quality issues are on debate these days due to its direct effect on people's health.
Indoor pollution sources that release gases or particles into the air are the primary cause of indoor air quality problems in homes. Inadequate ventilation can increase indoor pollutant levels by not bringing in enough outdoor air to dilute emissions from indoor sources and by not carrying indoor air pollutants out of the home. High temperature and humidity levels can also increase concentrations of some pollutants. Carbon dioxide is often measured in indoor environments to quickly but indirectly assess approximately how much outdoor air is entering a room in relation to the number of occupants. Replaces oxygen in the blood-exposure to concentrations around 40,000 ppm is immediately dangerous to life and health. CO<sub>2</sub> poisoning, however, is very rare.
In this research a building as a case study is selected and in one of the most characteristic energy audit software is modeled to estimate the amount of its energy consumption. It is estimated with calculating building heating and cooling loads in different seasons. The ventilation rate of the building as one of the factors in energy consumption is assessed As well as the concentration of gases in closed environments will be reviewed since all these standards directly and indirectly are trying to improve the human's life condition. Then some optimizing strategies were applied on the building to investigate the relationship between energy consumption and indoor air quality.
Methods
1-Energy Modeling
At first, the educational building was modeled in the DesignBuilder Software and its energy consumption was calculated. Building characteristics such as occupancy, number of persons living in each sector, heating and cooling systems, fuel type, materials used in the construction of the building shell, openings and its type, As input to the model was imported into the software. As seen, the highest rate of heat dissipation through the air in the building is from ventilation.
2-Indoor Air Quality Modeling
Contam software is used for indoor air quality modeling. This program does not draw a geometric model fully, just can draw external walls and partitions as a general plan. Defining airflow and showing the location of doors and windows. As well as environmental factors such as air temperature outside and inside, wind speed and direction, wind sped ratio and outside pollutants can be introduced as an input to the model.
3-General Characteristics of Building
The case study is an educational building, various parameters including U values of external walls, window to wall ratios, and orientations are investigated in this parametric study. different U values of external wall U=1.798[W/m<sup>2</sup>.k], U=1.976[W/m<sup>2</sup>.k], and U value of roof 1.256[W/m<sup>2</sup>.k] are employed to analyze heating and cooling loads for the educational building. In the simulation, the heating setpoint is 21 C and cooling setpoint is 25 C. The energy consumption of the house is taken as the criteria for the optimal sustainable facade design. Building heating by the central system is provided and building cooling system is independent. Building's lighting system is provided by fluorescent light bulbs. Geometry is drawn in the model space. Doors and windows and all openings in accordance with their actual proportions in the same location and orientation of the main building were drawn in the software.
Discussion of Results
For assessing Efficiency of buildings ventilation, carbon dioxide concentration in the simulated building is evaluated. Carbon dioxide is a byproduct of respiration. When breathing, people inhale oxygen into the lungs and exhaled carbon dioxide. This will cause the carbon dioxide levels rise in buildings over the next several hours to reach a maximum value. In model Carbon dioxide content in fresh air is approximately 400 parts per million and for human inspiration rates equal 0.1m3/h is intended. According to the diagram1, the class supposed to start at 8 Am and 12 noon finished. Time period is considered till 14 Pm, and the number of people present in room, have been considered 20.
Figure 1. Carbon dioxide concentration changes with time
The results clearly indicate that the CO2 concentrations can give an indication of the indoor air quality in these indoor and enclosed environments. At the start of class, Co2 concentration was assessed 400 ppm. It is clear that the CO2 concentration increased immediately at 8am until it reached a steady state condition at about 9 am as shown in Figure 1. The maximum CO2 concentration was constant at 642 ppm for the entire duration until 12 am. The maximum concentration of carbon dioxide is 642 ppm which is consistent with existing standard allowance . But the increasing number of individuals in the model to 30 people, it increases nearly 800ppm. The situation will require increasing ventilation within the class.
Building ventilation rates were 2/4 time in hours and the heat load of the building is estimated at 64,508 kWh. To investigate the effect of air changes in energy consumption, all parameters affecting energy consumption are assumed to be constant at any given stage, only the rate of change of air had changed. The amount of air changes in the building start from 0/2 to 3 times at the time ended. We can see that the building heat load carrier ratio increased linearly .Thus, the amount of air changes is one of the most important factors affecting energy consumption of heating the building. But the behavior of the building cooling load is different with the heating load and the effect of air changes on it, is limited over time. Increasing the ventilation rate reduces the amount of carbon dioxide in the building and it is essential for improving conditions in indoor environment. The amount of air changes in the studied buildings vary. For example, in the corridors and rooms air change rate per hour is high, and this matter will increase energy dissipation.
In order to optimize building energy consumption, a set of optimizing actions, including wall insulation, roof insulation, replacing windows with double-glazed windows pvc building are applied in the model and seen that heating and cooling load decreased. But concentration of Co2 increased due to decrease ventilation rate. To solve these problems, air conditioning systems can be used.
Conclusions
Evaluation of carbon dioxide as an indicator of indoor air quality was assessed and it is found that with the increasing number of people in the class with the air change rates equal 2/4 times per hour, the amount of carbon dioxide from respiration, increased to 800ppm. To solve this problem it is necessary to increase the rate of air changes. It was observed that increasing the rate of air changes greatly increase the building heating loads and it will increase energy consumption in the building. Performance of cooling loads are different and the rate of air changes has very little impact on the building cooling loads.then some optimization strategies applied to the building and 67% of building heating load and 39% of cooling load is reduced . But after these actions, leakage and penetration rate will be reduced. This increases the amount of carbon dioxide in stable condition and breathing through people. Thus reducing the rate of air changes should be considered measures to ensure indoor air quality.
Introduction
Reducing and optimizing energy consumption and consequently environmental pollution reductions, besides improving building performance providing occupants comfort conditions, make the building's concept closer to the concept of green building and sustainability. Once the decision to build green has been made, one of the first steps in the green design process is to establish firm environmental goals for the project.
In recent years, much research in the field of energy efficiency in buildings has been carried out. Also indoor air quality issues are on debate these days due to its direct effect on people's health.
Indoor pollution sources that release gases or particles into the air are the primary cause of indoor air quality problems in homes. Inadequate ventilation can increase indoor pollutant levels by not bringing in enough outdoor air to dilute emissions from indoor sources and by not carrying indoor air pollutants out of the home. High temperature and humidity levels can also increase concentrations of some pollutants. Carbon dioxide is often measured in indoor environments to quickly but indirectly assess approximately how much outdoor air is entering a room in relation to the number of occupants. Replaces oxygen in the blood-exposure to concentrations around 40,000 ppm is immediately dangerous to life and health. CO<sub>2</sub> poisoning, however, is very rare.
In this research a building as a case study is selected and in one of the most characteristic energy audit software is modeled to estimate the amount of its energy consumption. It is estimated with calculating building heating and cooling loads in different seasons. The ventilation rate of the building as one of the factors in energy consumption is assessed As well as the concentration of gases in closed environments will be reviewed since all these standards directly and indirectly are trying to improve the human's life condition. Then some optimizing strategies were applied on the building to investigate the relationship between energy consumption and indoor air quality.
Methods
1-Energy Modeling
At first, the educational building was modeled in the DesignBuilder Software and its energy consumption was calculated. Building characteristics such as occupancy, number of persons living in each sector, heating and cooling systems, fuel type, materials used in the construction of the building shell, openings and its type, As input to the model was imported into the software. As seen, the highest rate of heat dissipation through the air in the building is from ventilation.
2-Indoor Air Quality Modeling
Contam software is used for indoor air quality modeling. This program does not draw a geometric model fully, just can draw external walls and partitions as a general plan. Defining airflow and showing the location of doors and windows. As well as environmental factors such as air temperature outside and inside, wind speed and direction, wind sped ratio and outside pollutants can be introduced as an input to the model.
3-General Characteristics of Building
The case study is an educational building, various parameters including U values of external walls, window to wall ratios, and orientations are investigated in this parametric study. different U values of external wall U=1.798[W/m<sup>2</sup>.k], U=1.976[W/m<sup>2</sup>.k], and U value of roof 1.256[W/m<sup>2</sup>.k] are employed to analyze heating and cooling loads for the educational building. In the simulation, the heating setpoint is 21 C and cooling setpoint is 25 C. The energy consumption of the house is taken as the criteria for the optimal sustainable facade design. Building heating by the central system is provided and building cooling system is independent. Building's lighting system is provided by fluorescent light bulbs. Geometry is drawn in the model space. Doors and windows and all openings in accordance with their actual proportions in the same location and orientation of the main building were drawn in the software.
Discussion of Results
For assessing Efficiency of buildings ventilation, carbon dioxide concentration in the simulated building is evaluated. Carbon dioxide is a byproduct of respiration. When breathing, people inhale oxygen into the lungs and exhaled carbon dioxide. This will cause the carbon dioxide levels rise in buildings over the next several hours to reach a maximum value. In model Carbon dioxide content in fresh air is approximately 400 parts per million and for human inspiration rates equal 0.1m3/h is intended. According to the diagram1, the class supposed to start at 8 Am and 12 noon finished. Time period is considered till 14 Pm, and the number of people present in room, have been considered 20.
Figure 1. Carbon dioxide concentration changes with time
The results clearly indicate that the CO2 concentrations can give an indication of the indoor air quality in these indoor and enclosed environments. At the start of class, Co2 concentration was assessed 400 ppm. It is clear that the CO2 concentration increased immediately at 8am until it reached a steady state condition at about 9 am as shown in Figure 1. The maximum CO2 concentration was constant at 642 ppm for the entire duration until 12 am. The maximum concentration of carbon dioxide is 642 ppm which is consistent with existing standard allowance . But the increasing number of individuals in the model to 30 people, it increases nearly 800ppm. The situation will require increasing ventilation within the class.
Building ventilation rates were 2/4 time in hours and the heat load of the building is estimated at 64,508 kWh. To investigate the effect of air changes in energy consumption, all parameters affecting energy consumption are assumed to be constant at any given stage, only the rate of change of air had changed. The amount of air changes in the building start from 0/2 to 3 times at the time ended. We can see that the building heat load carrier ratio increased linearly .Thus, the amount of air changes is one of the most important factors affecting energy consumption of heating the building. But the behavior of the building cooling load is different with the heating load and the effect of air changes on it, is limited over time. Increasing the ventilation rate reduces the amount of carbon dioxide in the building and it is essential for improving conditions in indoor environment. The amount of air changes in the studied buildings vary. For example, in the corridors and rooms air change rate per hour is high, and this matter will increase energy dissipation.
In order to optimize building energy consumption, a set of optimizing actions, including wall insulation, roof insulation, replacing windows with double-glazed windows pvc building are applied in the model and seen that heating and cooling load decreased. But concentration of Co2 increased due to decrease ventilation rate. To solve these problems, air conditioning systems can be used.
Conclusions
Evaluation of carbon dioxide as an indicator of indoor air quality was assessed and it is found that with the increasing number of people in the class with the air change rates equal 2/4 times per hour, the amount of carbon dioxide from respiration, increased to 800ppm. To solve this problem it is necessary to increase the rate of air changes. It was observed that increasing the rate of air changes greatly increase the building heating loads and it will increase energy consumption in the building. Performance of cooling loads are different and the rate of air changes has very little impact on the building cooling loads.then some optimization strategies applied to the building and 67% of building heating load and 39% of cooling load is reduced . But after these actions, leakage and penetration rate will be reduced. This increases the amount of carbon dioxide in stable condition and breathing through people. Thus reducing the rate of air changes should be considered measures to ensure indoor air quality.https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_53016_72fc4ea68c2b904b1049f45368d18e30.pdfدانشگاه تهرانJournal of Environmental Studies1025-862040420141222Prioritizing the Reclamation Criteria during Mines Closure
(Golgohar, Sangan, Chadormalu Iron Mines)Prioritizing the Reclamation Criteria during Mines Closure
(Golgohar, Sangan, Chadormalu Iron Mines)102310335301710.22059/jes.2014.53017FANargesHajkazemihaPhD.stud. School of Environment & Energy, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, IranMahmoudShariatProf. School of Environment & Energy, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, IranMasoudMonavariAsst.prof. School of Environment & Energy, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran0000-0001-9142-9790MohamadAtaeiProf. Shahrood University of Technology, School of Mining, Petroleum & Geophysics Engineering, Semnan, IranJournal Article20140518Introduction <br />Development of natural resources and mining activities are prerequisite for economic and industrial growth in many countries. In many cases, such mining areas lie within residential or agricultural lands or natural habitats intensifying the contradiction between land use and environmental protection. <br />Different components of mining activities including exploration, extraction and processing impose extensive physical, chemical and biological changes on the environment due to nature and characteristics of the activities. <br />Nowadays, mine owners are strongly urged to do their activities in line with environmental standards and regulations. Therefore, in the contemporary world with increasing knowledge of environmental impacts of projects, development of mining industries must be accompanied with more comfort and welfare, effective and continual protection of the environment and of human and financial resources. Implementation of environmental management for mines to minimize the adverse effects of mining activities and mining wastes on the environment as well as planning for reclamation of mine sites after completion of mining activities is of great importance. <br /> <br />Materials & Methods <br />Reclamation and Environmental Characteristics <br />In general reclamation refers to the activities carried out for the preparation of mined out lands for re-use and rehabilitation of the lands. Such activities do not necessarily restore the land to its former or original form and conditions (prior to mining) but to return the land affected to a condition and productive use as similar as to its pre-mining condition. Reclamation activities cover different parts of mining area including pit, waste dumps and tailing dams. In fact, reclamation is not considered as an activity separate from design, planning and mining, but it is regarded as part and component of mining activity, which begins from design and planning stage and continues to mining stage <br />The major objectives of mine reclamation are risk mitigation and safety enhancement, rehabilitation of lands (affected by mining activities) and water resources, environmental impact mitigation, ensuring the protection of environmental and socio-economic resources of the area after completion of mining activities and creating new land-uses and stimulating the proper use of energy resources and ensuring sustainable exploitation of mines. <br />In this research, Golgohar, Sangan and Chadormalu, the three largest iron mines in Iran, located in Sirjan, Khaf and Bafgh respectively, were selected for definition of reclamation criteria. These three large mining-industrial complexes are located in arid warm regions with similar ecosystems. <br />Study Areas <br /><em>Golgohar Mine</em> <br />Golgohar deposit in the form of six separate anomalies lies in Kerman province at longitude 55° 19′ E, and latitude 29° 7′ N. Golgohar orebody is located over an elevated pastureland within a semi-arid area surrounded by mountains with an elevation over 2500m. There is no perennial stream over the area. Dry and arid climate have caused extensive fluctuation in temperature during different seasons and during daytime and nighttime. <br />Sangan Mine <br />Sangan iron ore mine lies in Khorasan-e Rasavi province, Khaf town at longitude 60° 16′ E and latitude 34° 24′ N with three anomalies. The project site is located over a semi-arid area with warm and dry climate predominantly. <br />Chadormalu Iron Mine <br />Chadormalu Mine lies in Yazd province, at latitude 32° 17′ N, and longitude 55° 30′ E. Due to vicinity to Markazi and Lut Deserts, the area has warm and dry climate with an average temperature of 20.8°c. <br /><em>Methodology </em> <br />As it mentioned, three large iron mines in Iran named Golgohar, Sangan and Chadormalu were selected for this research. Since the reclamation criteria were qualitative, using mathematic models was impossible, and to utilize the collective opinions and existing experiences, Multi-Criteria Decision-Making system and Fuzzy Delphi Analytical Hierarchy Process (FDAHP) were used. Reclamation criteria were defined based on the studied documents, type of ecosystem of the study area, and advice of mining and environmental specialists and executives. 40 criteria and sub-criteria were defined and tabulated for collection of the opinions of professors and specialists in three categories including natural, social and economic environments as bellows: <br />A) Natural Environment including: <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Sub-Criteria <br /> <br /> <br />Criteria <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Slope and land relief <br /> <br /> <br />Topography and Landform <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Density, composition, economic value, medicinal value, cultivation method and final land use <br /> <br /> <br />Vegetation <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Drainage pattern, quality and quantity <br /> <br /> <br />Water <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Precipitation, temperature, wind and humidity <br /> <br /> <br />Climate <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Texture, water retention in soil, pH, organic matter percentage, nutrient percentage, physical and chemical properties, fertility, soluble and erosion <br /> <br /> <br />Soil <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Remoteness from residential areas, protected areas, sensitive ecosystems and historical heritage, former land uses, access roads and extent of destructed land <br /> <br /> <br />Mine Location <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />B) Social Environment including: native inhabitants, immigration, land ownership, employment, values of inhabitants’ properties, safety, sanitation and health <br />C) Economic Environment including: losing jobs, income, improvement of individual skills, and cost <br />After collecting the completed criteria tables, the required data were extracted and the criteria were prioritized based on Delphi Fuzzy Methods. <br /> <br />Result &Discussion <br />20 questionnaires out of the total 30 questionnaires were filled out by experts. The information received through these questionnaires, were extracted, classified and used as the input data for FDAHP method. The Fuzzy pair-wise comparison matrix was computed, and the given value to each criterion was compared between different experts; then the Minimum, Geometric Mean, and Maximum of each criterion were defined. In the next stage, the relative weight of parameters were computed and shown as fuzzy weight and non-fuzzy weight and then, the criteria were classified based on their priority. <br />Based on conducted investigations, reclamation criteria priority has been shown in below table: <br />In the next step, considering the frequency and distribution of the criteria, another classification was made in terms of different expert groups and the given preference; and ultimately, 16 criteria were selected out of 40 criteria and sub-criteria with highest preference and priority in iron mine reclamation for the purpose of compilation of reclamation model and instruction. The selected criteria are as follows: <br />- In topography and landform category: slope and relief <br />- In vegetation category: vegetation density and vegetation composition for cultivation <br />- In water category: water quality and drainage pattern <br />- In climate category: wind blow and precipitation <br />- In soil category: soil erosion and soil pH <br />- In mine location category: extent of destructed area and access roads <br />- In social environment category: indigenous inhabitants of the area, and safety, sanitation and <br /> health <br />- In economic environment category: reclamation cost and income <br />The findings of the research indicate that 16 criteria have priority over other criteria in iron mine reclamation in Iran. The prerequisite for preparation of an executive plan for iron mines reclamation based on the criteria studied in this research depends on mining method, and mine decommissioning and mine closure plan. <br />Conclusion <br />Investigations revealed that due to variety and multiplicity of reclamation criteria, Multi-Criteria Delphi-Fuzzy Decision-Making Method could be applied for defining the priorities of the criteria. In this research, 16 sub-criteria were selected out of 40 sub-criteria with the highest preference and priority in reclamation of the mined out area in Golegohar, Sangan and Chadormalu iron mines. These prioritized sub-criteria provide a suitable framework to prepare the reclamation program. This method can be applied for prioritization of reclamation criteria for all mines. However, it should be noted that time restriction, cost, available facilities and equipment as well as ecosystems of the mining areas define the order of priorities of the criteria for reclamation programming. In fact, the reclamation program should be compiled in the form of an integrated management plan taking all criteria into consideration at the same time. <br />Therefore, reclamation of mining areas is significant for policymakers and authorities of the country due to extensive use of natural resources in mining activities. Since, the rules and regulations related to reclamation of mining areas have not been standardized and administrated in Iran, and the duties and commitments of the owners and beneficiaries have not been properly defined, quantitative and qualitative development of mines reclamation program should be properly planned.Introduction <br />Development of natural resources and mining activities are prerequisite for economic and industrial growth in many countries. In many cases, such mining areas lie within residential or agricultural lands or natural habitats intensifying the contradiction between land use and environmental protection. <br />Different components of mining activities including exploration, extraction and processing impose extensive physical, chemical and biological changes on the environment due to nature and characteristics of the activities. <br />Nowadays, mine owners are strongly urged to do their activities in line with environmental standards and regulations. Therefore, in the contemporary world with increasing knowledge of environmental impacts of projects, development of mining industries must be accompanied with more comfort and welfare, effective and continual protection of the environment and of human and financial resources. Implementation of environmental management for mines to minimize the adverse effects of mining activities and mining wastes on the environment as well as planning for reclamation of mine sites after completion of mining activities is of great importance. <br /> <br />Materials & Methods <br />Reclamation and Environmental Characteristics <br />In general reclamation refers to the activities carried out for the preparation of mined out lands for re-use and rehabilitation of the lands. Such activities do not necessarily restore the land to its former or original form and conditions (prior to mining) but to return the land affected to a condition and productive use as similar as to its pre-mining condition. Reclamation activities cover different parts of mining area including pit, waste dumps and tailing dams. In fact, reclamation is not considered as an activity separate from design, planning and mining, but it is regarded as part and component of mining activity, which begins from design and planning stage and continues to mining stage <br />The major objectives of mine reclamation are risk mitigation and safety enhancement, rehabilitation of lands (affected by mining activities) and water resources, environmental impact mitigation, ensuring the protection of environmental and socio-economic resources of the area after completion of mining activities and creating new land-uses and stimulating the proper use of energy resources and ensuring sustainable exploitation of mines. <br />In this research, Golgohar, Sangan and Chadormalu, the three largest iron mines in Iran, located in Sirjan, Khaf and Bafgh respectively, were selected for definition of reclamation criteria. These three large mining-industrial complexes are located in arid warm regions with similar ecosystems. <br />Study Areas <br /><em>Golgohar Mine</em> <br />Golgohar deposit in the form of six separate anomalies lies in Kerman province at longitude 55° 19′ E, and latitude 29° 7′ N. Golgohar orebody is located over an elevated pastureland within a semi-arid area surrounded by mountains with an elevation over 2500m. There is no perennial stream over the area. Dry and arid climate have caused extensive fluctuation in temperature during different seasons and during daytime and nighttime. <br />Sangan Mine <br />Sangan iron ore mine lies in Khorasan-e Rasavi province, Khaf town at longitude 60° 16′ E and latitude 34° 24′ N with three anomalies. The project site is located over a semi-arid area with warm and dry climate predominantly. <br />Chadormalu Iron Mine <br />Chadormalu Mine lies in Yazd province, at latitude 32° 17′ N, and longitude 55° 30′ E. Due to vicinity to Markazi and Lut Deserts, the area has warm and dry climate with an average temperature of 20.8°c. <br /><em>Methodology </em> <br />As it mentioned, three large iron mines in Iran named Golgohar, Sangan and Chadormalu were selected for this research. Since the reclamation criteria were qualitative, using mathematic models was impossible, and to utilize the collective opinions and existing experiences, Multi-Criteria Decision-Making system and Fuzzy Delphi Analytical Hierarchy Process (FDAHP) were used. Reclamation criteria were defined based on the studied documents, type of ecosystem of the study area, and advice of mining and environmental specialists and executives. 40 criteria and sub-criteria were defined and tabulated for collection of the opinions of professors and specialists in three categories including natural, social and economic environments as bellows: <br />A) Natural Environment including: <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Sub-Criteria <br /> <br /> <br />Criteria <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Slope and land relief <br /> <br /> <br />Topography and Landform <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Density, composition, economic value, medicinal value, cultivation method and final land use <br /> <br /> <br />Vegetation <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Drainage pattern, quality and quantity <br /> <br /> <br />Water <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Precipitation, temperature, wind and humidity <br /> <br /> <br />Climate <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Texture, water retention in soil, pH, organic matter percentage, nutrient percentage, physical and chemical properties, fertility, soluble and erosion <br /> <br /> <br />Soil <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Remoteness from residential areas, protected areas, sensitive ecosystems and historical heritage, former land uses, access roads and extent of destructed land <br /> <br /> <br />Mine Location <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />B) Social Environment including: native inhabitants, immigration, land ownership, employment, values of inhabitants’ properties, safety, sanitation and health <br />C) Economic Environment including: losing jobs, income, improvement of individual skills, and cost <br />After collecting the completed criteria tables, the required data were extracted and the criteria were prioritized based on Delphi Fuzzy Methods. <br /> <br />Result &Discussion <br />20 questionnaires out of the total 30 questionnaires were filled out by experts. The information received through these questionnaires, were extracted, classified and used as the input data for FDAHP method. The Fuzzy pair-wise comparison matrix was computed, and the given value to each criterion was compared between different experts; then the Minimum, Geometric Mean, and Maximum of each criterion were defined. In the next stage, the relative weight of parameters were computed and shown as fuzzy weight and non-fuzzy weight and then, the criteria were classified based on their priority. <br />Based on conducted investigations, reclamation criteria priority has been shown in below table: <br />In the next step, considering the frequency and distribution of the criteria, another classification was made in terms of different expert groups and the given preference; and ultimately, 16 criteria were selected out of 40 criteria and sub-criteria with highest preference and priority in iron mine reclamation for the purpose of compilation of reclamation model and instruction. The selected criteria are as follows: <br />- In topography and landform category: slope and relief <br />- In vegetation category: vegetation density and vegetation composition for cultivation <br />- In water category: water quality and drainage pattern <br />- In climate category: wind blow and precipitation <br />- In soil category: soil erosion and soil pH <br />- In mine location category: extent of destructed area and access roads <br />- In social environment category: indigenous inhabitants of the area, and safety, sanitation and <br /> health <br />- In economic environment category: reclamation cost and income <br />The findings of the research indicate that 16 criteria have priority over other criteria in iron mine reclamation in Iran. The prerequisite for preparation of an executive plan for iron mines reclamation based on the criteria studied in this research depends on mining method, and mine decommissioning and mine closure plan. <br />Conclusion <br />Investigations revealed that due to variety and multiplicity of reclamation criteria, Multi-Criteria Delphi-Fuzzy Decision-Making Method could be applied for defining the priorities of the criteria. In this research, 16 sub-criteria were selected out of 40 sub-criteria with the highest preference and priority in reclamation of the mined out area in Golegohar, Sangan and Chadormalu iron mines. These prioritized sub-criteria provide a suitable framework to prepare the reclamation program. This method can be applied for prioritization of reclamation criteria for all mines. However, it should be noted that time restriction, cost, available facilities and equipment as well as ecosystems of the mining areas define the order of priorities of the criteria for reclamation programming. In fact, the reclamation program should be compiled in the form of an integrated management plan taking all criteria into consideration at the same time. <br />Therefore, reclamation of mining areas is significant for policymakers and authorities of the country due to extensive use of natural resources in mining activities. Since, the rules and regulations related to reclamation of mining areas have not been standardized and administrated in Iran, and the duties and commitments of the owners and beneficiaries have not been properly defined, quantitative and qualitative development of mines reclamation program should be properly planned.https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_53017_5b59e896dbfdd4f50c52e26bb4c79185.pdfدانشگاه تهرانJournal of Environmental Studies1025-862040420141222Application of Plan - Process - Results (PPR) method in urban plans evaluationApplication of Plan - Process - Results (PPR) method in urban plans evaluation103510505301810.22059/jes.2014.53018FAManouchehrTabibianProfessor, Department of Urban Planning, College of Fine Arts, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran Prof., College of Fine Arts, University of TehranAliAsoodehM.Sc,Graduate of Urban Management, College of Fine Arts, University of Tehran, Tehran, IranJournal Article20140315 <br />Introduction<br /> So far, many evaluation methodologies for assessing urban plans have been introduced, but comprehensive and systematic evaluation methodologies up to now have received little attention. In recent years the Plan - Process - Results (PPR) approach as a comprehensive and systematic evaluation methodology based on the Policy- Plan/Programme-Implementation-Process(PPIP) methodology has been used in the assessment of urban plans. The PPIP model criteria - conformity, rational process, optimality ex-ante, optimality ex-post and utilisation – in planning the subsequent questions of policy, plan or programme, or the planning process under study and its results are considered. Despite the influence of PPIP model in the planning literature, from the early 1990s to the best of our knowledge PPIP has not been used in real case studies, or not reported but PPR methodology since the two cities, Lisbon and Porto are applied. <br /> In this study we outline the key elements of Plan - Process - Results (PPR) methodology, including criteria, sub-criteria and evaluation techniques/data sources introduced and its application in evaluation of urban plans using this methodology in ex-ante evaluation of Abshar (2) land development plan in Mashhad describes. <br />Methodology <br />Plan - Process - Results (PPR) methodology was developed in 2009 by Oliveira and Pinho for comprehensive evaluation of urban plans that will take into consideration all dimensions of urban plans with greater emphasis on the physical dimension and it used in ex-ante, ongoing ,ex-pose evaluation of urban development plan. This methodology exploit the positive aspects and fixes some weaknesses in the ex-ante evaluation methods, to scrutinize criteria of the Policy- Plan/Programme-Implementation-Process (PPIP) methodology. <br />In this study PPR methodology used in the ex-ante evaluation of Abshar (2) land development plan in Mashhad by utilizes a number of criteria that relate to the ex-ante dimension of Plan described. <br /> <br />Results <br />Overall, the specific criteria on which the Abshar (2) land development plan attains the highest scores are the internal coherence and interpretation of planning system (see Table 5). The specific criteria on which the plan attains the Lowest scores are the participation in plan making. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Table 5. Abshar (2) land development plan: Evaluation results <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Evaluation techniques /data sources <br /> <br /> <br />Score <br /> <br /> <br />Sub-criteria <br /> <br /> <br />Criteria <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Reading of the plan <br /> <br />Impact matrices <br /> <br /> <br />A <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Relationships between the objectives and the land uses of the plan <br /> <br /> <br />Internal coherence <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Relationships between the objectives and the urban systems of the plan <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Relationships between the objectives and the plan implementation mechanisms <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Reading of the different versions of the plan and its regulation <br /> <br /> <br />A <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Interpretation in terms of form <br /> <br /> <br />Interpretation of planning system <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Interpretation in terms of substance <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Reading of the plan <br />SWOT analysis <br />Impact matrices <br />Reading of the newspapers <br /> <br /> <br />B <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Relationships between the needs of the city and the objectives of the plan <br /> <br /> <br />Relevance <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Relationships between the needs of the city and the land uses and urban systems <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Relationships between the needs of the city and the plan implementation mechanisms <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Reading of the plan and of other plans for that territory <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />B <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Relationships in terms of objectives <br /> <br /> <br />ٍExternal coherence <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Relationships in terms of territorial <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Relationships in terms of implementation <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Reading of the plan <br />Interviews <br /> <br /> <br />C <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Quantity of participants <br /> <br /> <br />Participation in plan making <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Quality of participants <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Promotion of public participation by the local authority <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Reading of the different versions of the plan (during the period of its preparation) <br />Interviews <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />B <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Influence of the political power in the plan, as well as in other planning products, processes and structures <br /> <br /> <br />Plan utilisation <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Influence of the plan and of the planning practice in the political power <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Reading of the plan <br />Interviews <br /> <br /> <br />B <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Evolution of the availability of resources <br /> <br /> <br />Commitment of resources <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Type of resources available <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Relationships between planning performance and utilization of resources <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Conclusions <br />This study aims to demonstrate that despite the difficulties and the complexity of the evaluation of planning action it is possible to evaluate urban plan practice in a comprehensive and systematic way. In this paper Plan - Process - Results (PPR) methodology and its application in the ex-ante evaluation of Abshar (2) land development plan in Mashhad was raised. Overall, the results indicate that a greater emphasis on the physical dimension and providing more of the criteria and data sources this methodology differs from other methodologies and makes fertile ground for managers and urban planners to provide to a more favourable evaluation of the planning and implementation of urban plans are made.Moreover, the selection of general and specific criteria, the corresponding evaluation questions, the assessment techniques, and data source indicated comprehensive character of PPR. <br />The limitation of this methodology also requires access to vast sources of data are. Application of the PPR methodology provided not only a sound and substantiated judgment on the case study under evaluation but also provided the basis for identifying a number of singular and important features in planning practice of Abshar (2) land development plan. <br /> Overall, according to the characteristics and framework of urban planning systeme in Iran of greater emphasis on physical dimension rather than other dimensions of economic, social, environmental, so this methodology is more consistent with the country's urbanism system and can be applied as a comprehensive and systematic evaluation method in assessting planning and implementing urban plans in Iran. Finally the main challenge of evaluation can be described as a dilemma that planning is faced with uncertainty and evaluator must at the same time be able to judge plan, process and their results. <br />Introduction<br /> So far, many evaluation methodologies for assessing urban plans have been introduced, but comprehensive and systematic evaluation methodologies up to now have received little attention. In recent years the Plan - Process - Results (PPR) approach as a comprehensive and systematic evaluation methodology based on the Policy- Plan/Programme-Implementation-Process(PPIP) methodology has been used in the assessment of urban plans. The PPIP model criteria - conformity, rational process, optimality ex-ante, optimality ex-post and utilisation – in planning the subsequent questions of policy, plan or programme, or the planning process under study and its results are considered. Despite the influence of PPIP model in the planning literature, from the early 1990s to the best of our knowledge PPIP has not been used in real case studies, or not reported but PPR methodology since the two cities, Lisbon and Porto are applied. <br /> In this study we outline the key elements of Plan - Process - Results (PPR) methodology, including criteria, sub-criteria and evaluation techniques/data sources introduced and its application in evaluation of urban plans using this methodology in ex-ante evaluation of Abshar (2) land development plan in Mashhad describes. <br />Methodology <br />Plan - Process - Results (PPR) methodology was developed in 2009 by Oliveira and Pinho for comprehensive evaluation of urban plans that will take into consideration all dimensions of urban plans with greater emphasis on the physical dimension and it used in ex-ante, ongoing ,ex-pose evaluation of urban development plan. This methodology exploit the positive aspects and fixes some weaknesses in the ex-ante evaluation methods, to scrutinize criteria of the Policy- Plan/Programme-Implementation-Process (PPIP) methodology. <br />In this study PPR methodology used in the ex-ante evaluation of Abshar (2) land development plan in Mashhad by utilizes a number of criteria that relate to the ex-ante dimension of Plan described. <br /> <br />Results <br />Overall, the specific criteria on which the Abshar (2) land development plan attains the highest scores are the internal coherence and interpretation of planning system (see Table 5). The specific criteria on which the plan attains the Lowest scores are the participation in plan making. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Table 5. Abshar (2) land development plan: Evaluation results <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Evaluation techniques /data sources <br /> <br /> <br />Score <br /> <br /> <br />Sub-criteria <br /> <br /> <br />Criteria <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Reading of the plan <br /> <br />Impact matrices <br /> <br /> <br />A <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Relationships between the objectives and the land uses of the plan <br /> <br /> <br />Internal coherence <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Relationships between the objectives and the urban systems of the plan <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Relationships between the objectives and the plan implementation mechanisms <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Reading of the different versions of the plan and its regulation <br /> <br /> <br />A <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Interpretation in terms of form <br /> <br /> <br />Interpretation of planning system <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Interpretation in terms of substance <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Reading of the plan <br />SWOT analysis <br />Impact matrices <br />Reading of the newspapers <br /> <br /> <br />B <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Relationships between the needs of the city and the objectives of the plan <br /> <br /> <br />Relevance <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Relationships between the needs of the city and the land uses and urban systems <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Relationships between the needs of the city and the plan implementation mechanisms <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Reading of the plan and of other plans for that territory <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />B <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Relationships in terms of objectives <br /> <br /> <br />ٍExternal coherence <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Relationships in terms of territorial <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Relationships in terms of implementation <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Reading of the plan <br />Interviews <br /> <br /> <br />C <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Quantity of participants <br /> <br /> <br />Participation in plan making <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Quality of participants <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Promotion of public participation by the local authority <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Reading of the different versions of the plan (during the period of its preparation) <br />Interviews <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />B <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Influence of the political power in the plan, as well as in other planning products, processes and structures <br /> <br /> <br />Plan utilisation <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Influence of the plan and of the planning practice in the political power <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Reading of the plan <br />Interviews <br /> <br /> <br />B <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Evolution of the availability of resources <br /> <br /> <br />Commitment of resources <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Type of resources available <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Relationships between planning performance and utilization of resources <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Conclusions <br />This study aims to demonstrate that despite the difficulties and the complexity of the evaluation of planning action it is possible to evaluate urban plan practice in a comprehensive and systematic way. In this paper Plan - Process - Results (PPR) methodology and its application in the ex-ante evaluation of Abshar (2) land development plan in Mashhad was raised. Overall, the results indicate that a greater emphasis on the physical dimension and providing more of the criteria and data sources this methodology differs from other methodologies and makes fertile ground for managers and urban planners to provide to a more favourable evaluation of the planning and implementation of urban plans are made.Moreover, the selection of general and specific criteria, the corresponding evaluation questions, the assessment techniques, and data source indicated comprehensive character of PPR. <br />The limitation of this methodology also requires access to vast sources of data are. Application of the PPR methodology provided not only a sound and substantiated judgment on the case study under evaluation but also provided the basis for identifying a number of singular and important features in planning practice of Abshar (2) land development plan. <br /> Overall, according to the characteristics and framework of urban planning systeme in Iran of greater emphasis on physical dimension rather than other dimensions of economic, social, environmental, so this methodology is more consistent with the country's urbanism system and can be applied as a comprehensive and systematic evaluation method in assessting planning and implementing urban plans in Iran. Finally the main challenge of evaluation can be described as a dilemma that planning is faced with uncertainty and evaluator must at the same time be able to judge plan, process and their results.https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_53018_11a6ca60b27ca5075e217ce109afa617.pdfدانشگاه تهرانJournal of Environmental Studies1025-862040420141222Campus Landscape design based on resilience approach and water shortage(case study: Campus of Malayer University)Campus Landscape design based on resilience approach and water shortage(case study: Campus of Malayer University)105110665301910.22059/jes.2014.53019FAImanSaeediAcademic Member of Landscape Engineering Department, Faculty of Natural Resources and Environment, Malayer UniversityHassanDarabiAssistant Professor of Environmental Design, Facultyof Environment, University of TehranJournal Article20140428 <br />Introduction: <br />Water shortage is a crucial challenge that threatens future of landscape development in Iran. Naturally it intensifies by climate change that will be led to water stress of ecosystems. The water stress have confronted universities campus landscape with serious challenges especially those that located in arid and semi-arid areas such as center of Iran. Malayer University has had serious challenges due to water shortage in green space development in spite of fast growth. Local adaptation and mitigation actions have a high priority in dry context. <br /> Successful adaptation and mitigation need to increase ecological resilience and provide appropriate water resources without threaten the other places and species to meet their needs. Adoption strategies emphasis on ecological resilience and mitigation strategy stress on not only improvement of ecological function against climate change but also reduction the intensifying climate change factors such as greenhouse gases(GHG). Thus ecological resilience improvement will assist the continuum of ecosystems functions and will support mitigation movements. Therefore it is an essential and vital role of planning to cope with wicked problems due to climate changes. <br /> Climate change has faced our society with complex problems simultaneously increasing uncertainty. Resilience is an ideal option in access to cope uncertainty that try to recover systems from disruption. As Friend &Moench(2013) pointed the goals of develop is resilience or “an aspect of what development is”. But resilience here defined as ability of absorb shocks and increasing system ability to cope with challenges and conserve the system integrity and sustainably, although may it pass from one situation to new once. It does not mean as bouncing back the system. The emphasis is on sustainability continuum of ecological structure and functions. Although system could be experience some changes. <br />Iran has experienced great dryness challenges. Thereupon water shortage change into an ongoing threat of a dry country and it is a sign of wide spread crises through the country in near future. Malayer University that founded in 2005 has been developed rapidly. It tackled with water limitations for all kind of uses. Water limitation is a main obstacle in green landscape design of university campus too. The article tried to review resilience concept in water shortage conditions and present solutions for water deficit by rain harvest and reuse of gray water in campus landscape design from one side and increase water use efficiency by wise and ecological planting and reduce the water needs by selection of planet species with low water requirement from another side. <br /> <br />Method and materials: <br />University of Malayer located at county as same name (Malayer) and in North West of Hamadan province. The area has a semi dry climate. The area receives about 300 mm rain annually in average. The average of minimum temperature is -4 and the average of maximum temperature is 34.7 degree of centigrade. Total area of campus is about 55 hectare that has been built in 2005.Total built area is about 46000 square meters up to now. Slope of campus fluctuate between 3 to 7 percent. 70 percent of 55 hectares is in cult. Soil tests indicated the presence of clay soils in combination with organic materials. The soil salinity is low and without restrictions. The existing vegetation cover can be divided into two categories: <br />1-Herbaceousspecies, mainly in under developed parts of campus, Characteristics of those species are: wild plant, seasonal growth and short growing period. Plants are drying by beginning of warm season and increase water stress. These plants include species such as: <em>Peganumharmala, Achilleamillefolium, Descurainia Sophia, Gundeliatournefortii and Fritillaria sp.</em> <br />2-plantingtrees and shrubs that include limit species such as: black pine, cedar and cypress, <em>sycamore, mulberry, willow usual, walnuts, grapes, <em>Cotoneaster</em>nummularia, <em>Crataegus</em>aronia, different</em>types of roses, lavender, Rosemary. <br />The main problems of campus green space are: Planting sensitive vegetable to drought, water resources shortage and low efficiency in water irrigation systems. <br />This research has been done based on ecological design principles that expressed by Van der Ryn and Cowan in 1996. The study tries to use the ecological resilience based on global warming trend and water shortage in order to design more effective green landscape. <br />Result and discussion: <br />This section includes four steps: <br />1- Analyses of water resources in campus <br />2- Analyses of water irrigation efficiency <br />3- Analyses of plane species resilience against water shortage, ecological diversity and diversity in ecological functions. <br />The result shows area could store about 19000 cubic meters water from rain annually. This volume is enough to irrigation of green space during the year. Moreover harvest runoff is possible from pedestrians and streets. We could access to 90000 cubic meters water by construction of primary waste water treatment systems. <br />In addition change of traditional irrigation system is necessary that will increase irrigation efficiency. Meanwhile mulching can reduce surface evaporation and decrease water needs. Main and dominant plant species flexibility has been analyzed based on Hunter Model (2008). As a result vulnerable species identified, from anther hand new and native species was chose. The native species were selected that have following characteristics: Resistance against water stress, adopted by ecosystem conditions, diversity in ecological function, quality of growth and reproductive and less water requirement. Finally campus landscape has been design based on rain harvest and reuse of gray water (Fig. 1). <br /> <br />Fig. 1.Strategic design of campus green space based onrain harvest and reuse of gray water <br /> <br />Conclusion; <br />Landscape design is an alternative and additional tool for climate change and global warming. Landscape design could apply ecological principles in order to cope with climate change threats especially in dry regions. Campus landscapes of Malayer as sample chose to examine ability of ecological design. The result showed, green space of campus could be developed by utilize of potential water resources. Campus landscape could be improved by wise selection of planning species. The species should be resistance against water stress and climate changes. As result ecosystem service will be improved by wise develop of campus landscape through ecological design principles. Is this experiment applicable in more complicated places such as urban landscape? Simultaneously other approaches such as carbon sequestration are applicable? These two questions are new subjects for further practical research especially in the arid areas that faced with climate changes threats. <br />Introduction: <br />Water shortage is a crucial challenge that threatens future of landscape development in Iran. Naturally it intensifies by climate change that will be led to water stress of ecosystems. The water stress have confronted universities campus landscape with serious challenges especially those that located in arid and semi-arid areas such as center of Iran. Malayer University has had serious challenges due to water shortage in green space development in spite of fast growth. Local adaptation and mitigation actions have a high priority in dry context. <br /> Successful adaptation and mitigation need to increase ecological resilience and provide appropriate water resources without threaten the other places and species to meet their needs. Adoption strategies emphasis on ecological resilience and mitigation strategy stress on not only improvement of ecological function against climate change but also reduction the intensifying climate change factors such as greenhouse gases(GHG). Thus ecological resilience improvement will assist the continuum of ecosystems functions and will support mitigation movements. Therefore it is an essential and vital role of planning to cope with wicked problems due to climate changes. <br /> Climate change has faced our society with complex problems simultaneously increasing uncertainty. Resilience is an ideal option in access to cope uncertainty that try to recover systems from disruption. As Friend &Moench(2013) pointed the goals of develop is resilience or “an aspect of what development is”. But resilience here defined as ability of absorb shocks and increasing system ability to cope with challenges and conserve the system integrity and sustainably, although may it pass from one situation to new once. It does not mean as bouncing back the system. The emphasis is on sustainability continuum of ecological structure and functions. Although system could be experience some changes. <br />Iran has experienced great dryness challenges. Thereupon water shortage change into an ongoing threat of a dry country and it is a sign of wide spread crises through the country in near future. Malayer University that founded in 2005 has been developed rapidly. It tackled with water limitations for all kind of uses. Water limitation is a main obstacle in green landscape design of university campus too. The article tried to review resilience concept in water shortage conditions and present solutions for water deficit by rain harvest and reuse of gray water in campus landscape design from one side and increase water use efficiency by wise and ecological planting and reduce the water needs by selection of planet species with low water requirement from another side. <br /> <br />Method and materials: <br />University of Malayer located at county as same name (Malayer) and in North West of Hamadan province. The area has a semi dry climate. The area receives about 300 mm rain annually in average. The average of minimum temperature is -4 and the average of maximum temperature is 34.7 degree of centigrade. Total area of campus is about 55 hectare that has been built in 2005.Total built area is about 46000 square meters up to now. Slope of campus fluctuate between 3 to 7 percent. 70 percent of 55 hectares is in cult. Soil tests indicated the presence of clay soils in combination with organic materials. The soil salinity is low and without restrictions. The existing vegetation cover can be divided into two categories: <br />1-Herbaceousspecies, mainly in under developed parts of campus, Characteristics of those species are: wild plant, seasonal growth and short growing period. Plants are drying by beginning of warm season and increase water stress. These plants include species such as: <em>Peganumharmala, Achilleamillefolium, Descurainia Sophia, Gundeliatournefortii and Fritillaria sp.</em> <br />2-plantingtrees and shrubs that include limit species such as: black pine, cedar and cypress, <em>sycamore, mulberry, willow usual, walnuts, grapes, <em>Cotoneaster</em>nummularia, <em>Crataegus</em>aronia, different</em>types of roses, lavender, Rosemary. <br />The main problems of campus green space are: Planting sensitive vegetable to drought, water resources shortage and low efficiency in water irrigation systems. <br />This research has been done based on ecological design principles that expressed by Van der Ryn and Cowan in 1996. The study tries to use the ecological resilience based on global warming trend and water shortage in order to design more effective green landscape. <br />Result and discussion: <br />This section includes four steps: <br />1- Analyses of water resources in campus <br />2- Analyses of water irrigation efficiency <br />3- Analyses of plane species resilience against water shortage, ecological diversity and diversity in ecological functions. <br />The result shows area could store about 19000 cubic meters water from rain annually. This volume is enough to irrigation of green space during the year. Moreover harvest runoff is possible from pedestrians and streets. We could access to 90000 cubic meters water by construction of primary waste water treatment systems. <br />In addition change of traditional irrigation system is necessary that will increase irrigation efficiency. Meanwhile mulching can reduce surface evaporation and decrease water needs. Main and dominant plant species flexibility has been analyzed based on Hunter Model (2008). As a result vulnerable species identified, from anther hand new and native species was chose. The native species were selected that have following characteristics: Resistance against water stress, adopted by ecosystem conditions, diversity in ecological function, quality of growth and reproductive and less water requirement. Finally campus landscape has been design based on rain harvest and reuse of gray water (Fig. 1). <br /> <br />Fig. 1.Strategic design of campus green space based onrain harvest and reuse of gray water <br /> <br />Conclusion; <br />Landscape design is an alternative and additional tool for climate change and global warming. Landscape design could apply ecological principles in order to cope with climate change threats especially in dry regions. Campus landscapes of Malayer as sample chose to examine ability of ecological design. The result showed, green space of campus could be developed by utilize of potential water resources. Campus landscape could be improved by wise selection of planning species. The species should be resistance against water stress and climate changes. As result ecosystem service will be improved by wise develop of campus landscape through ecological design principles. Is this experiment applicable in more complicated places such as urban landscape? Simultaneously other approaches such as carbon sequestration are applicable? These two questions are new subjects for further practical research especially in the arid areas that faced with climate changes threats.https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_53019_183381c231ba92dc0577732b5451d346.pdfدانشگاه تهرانJournal of Environmental Studies1025-862040420141222Evaluation of Isfahan’s “Mâdies” as greenways, with sustainable development approach; a case study of Niasarm MâdiEvaluation of Isfahan’s “Mâdies” as greenways, with sustainable development approach; a case study of Niasarm Mâdi106710825302010.22059/jes.2014.53020FAMahmoodGhalehnoeeAssistant Professor and Director of Department of Urban Design, Art University of Isfahan0000-0003-4213-2979MinooAlikhaniMaster of Urban Planning, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University of ArakJournal Article20140223Introduction <br />Using greenways could be one of the ways which fulfill the improvement of urban streets. Greenways, as they are known, improve the pedestrianism and related qualities like climatic comfort, visual complexity and desirable serial visions. The objective of this research is to evaluate the capacity of <em>M</em><em>â</em><em>dies</em>[1] network in <em>Isfahan</em> to function as greenway. This research aims to assess in what extent they can play as main part of a vast green network. <em>Mâdies</em> are several streams divided directly from <em>Zayandeh-Rood </em>River<em>. </em>They constitute the main part of the historic-natural structureof <em>Isfahan</em>. There are about 250 km of these manmade streams which are perfectly planned, designed and constructed according to the topographic characteristic of the plain of Isfahan. Originally, <em>Mâdies</em> were created to irrigate the farmlands surrounding the river in the plain of <em>Isfahan</em> since the <em>Safavide</em> period. Today their role is completely changed; in one hand due to the drought of <em>Zayandeh-Rood </em>River (source of water in <em>Mâdies</em>) and expansion of city and land use transformation from agricultural to different urban land uses in the other hand. By the way, today <em>Mâdies </em>could play a vital role in improvement of environmental qualities despite their changing role. They are fundamental elements of urban structure in the city and reinforce the organic and natural aspects of urban planning and design as basic parts of greenway characteristics. Therefore they could be considered as main structure of green network in the city of Isfahan. As it is known, greenways enhance quality environment, aesthetic, recreation, education, relaxation, and preservation of habitation. Greenways can help the protection of ecological continuity. They are managed, planned and designed for several functions such as environmental, recreational, cultural, aesthetic and other purposes. So we can extract greenway characteristic from existing definitions such as their linear form, organic design, social inclusiveness and their perfect adaption to the urban environment. <em>Mâdies </em>can play a central role as part of a structure which is greenway network. To do this, it is necessary to know in what extend they are apt to this function. This paper tried to define what the strengths are and weakness of <em>Mâdies</em> to fulfill the task of being greenways. <br />Materials and methods <br />The first step of the method consists on description and definition of <em>Mâdies</em> and greenways as two principle parts of this study. The identification of two abovementioned concepts was necessary to establish the categories of indicators which make possible the comparison between them. Describing and categorizing the main characteristics of greenways was the next step of the research. In this part greenways are summarized across principal sources and expert in the field. The next step was defining the criteria and indicators to evaluate in what extent <em>Mâdies</em>could play the role of greenways in Isfahan. In-order to determine the indicators the main axis of precedent tables constitute the categories in which the indicators are extracted from different sources. The data is gathered through observation, noting and measurement. Table 1 shows the criteria, sub-criteria and indicators. <br />Table 1: Critera and indicators for assessment of Madies as greenways <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Criteria <br /> <br /> <br />Indicators <br /> <br /> <br />Niasarm <br /> <br /> <br />Unit <br /> <br /> <br />Quantification and Measurement <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />A. Pedestrianism <br /> <br /> <br />A1. Interconnection of pedestrians and cars <br /> <br /> <br />96% <br /> <br /> <br />Length (m). <br /> <br /> <br />Length of common path (pedestrians and cars) transportation. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />A2. Pavement facilitating pedestrian <br /> <br /> <br />34% <br /> <br /> <br />m2 <br /> <br /> <br />More convenient pavement covered percentage among 3 types identified. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />A3. Efficient width of pedestrian way <br /> <br /> <br />45%, <br /> <br /> <br />Width (m). <br /> <br /> <br />Width variation along Score<em> of Niasarm.</em> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />A4. Noise pollution rate <br /> <br /> <br />34% <br /> <br /> <br />dB <br /> <br /> <br />Average noise pollution recorded in one week with <em>Noise Dosimeter</em> and <em>Sound Label Meter</em> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />B. Security <br /> <br /> <br />B1. Nightlife uses <br /> <br /> <br />5% <br /> <br /> <br />Number/ unit of length <br /> <br /> <br />Land uses having nightlife potentials <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />B2. Social control <br /> <br /> <br />35% <br /> <br /> <br />Individual/ unit of surface <br /> <br /> <br />Number of individuals in space over 2 Hours (2 times a day), (+10→4 pts; 10-6→3 pts; 5-4→2 pts; 3-1→1pt; 0→0 point( <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />B3. Night lighting <br /> <br /> <br />45% <br /> <br /> <br />Lux /unit of length <br /> <br /> <br />M2 of alighted spaces/total space along <em>Mâdi</em> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />B4. Sense of security and control <br /> <br /> <br />40% <br /> <br /> <br />Number of positive responses <br /> <br /> <br />Positive responses in questionnaires <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />B5. Transparent fronts <br /> <br /> <br />25% <br /> <br /> <br />Unit/ length <br /> <br /> <br />Opening surfaces in m2/total surface <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />C. Safety <br /> <br /> <br />C1. Accident prone spots <br /> <br /> <br />90% <br /> <br /> <br />Number/ unit of length <br /> <br /> <br />Number of prone spots in length <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />C2. Sense of security in pathways <br /> <br /> <br />100% <br /> <br /> <br />Number of positive responses <br /> <br /> <br />Positive responses in questionnaires <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />D. Sociability <br /> <br /> <br />D1. Equipment and facilities <br /> <br /> <br />5% <br /> <br /> <br />Number in unit of surface /total <br /> <br /> <br />Average areas of Equipment and facilities measured in unit of surface/ total surface <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />D2. Programmed socio-petal spaces <br /> <br /> <br />5% <br /> <br /> <br />m2 of programmed spaces / m2 total <br /> <br /> <br />Average areas of programmed socio-petal spaces measured in m2 /total <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />D3.Public participation in maintenance <br /> <br /> <br />5% <br /> <br /> <br />Number of positive responses <br /> <br /> <br />Positive responses in questionnaires <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />D4. Place attachment rate <br /> <br /> <br />70% <br /> <br /> <br />Number of positive responses <br /> <br /> <br />Positive responses in questionnaires <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />E. Viability <br /> <br /> <br />E1. Inclusivity of space <br /> <br /> <br />25% <br /> <br /> <br />Percent <br /> <br /> <br />Diversity of different groups (sex, age) recorded in a week (2 times per day) <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />E2. Climatic comfort of space <br /> <br /> <br />100% <br /> <br /> <br />Percent <br /> <br /> <br />Creating a list and determining score of <em>Mâdi</em> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />E3. Permeability of space <br /> <br /> <br />5% <br /> <br /> <br />Block length (m). <br /> <br /> <br />Length of blocks measured by GIS <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />F. Physical aspects <br /> <br /> <br />F1. Geometry <br /> <br /> <br />100% <br /> <br /> <br />Percent <br /> <br /> <br />Linear form (of green way)→Best point; semi-linear→0.5 point; non-linear→0 point <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />F2. Structural elements <br /> <br /> <br />50% <br /> <br /> <br />Number in length <br /> <br /> <br />Elements of greenway (Corridors and pause points); <em>Mâdi</em> has no visible pause point <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />F3. Network character <br /> <br /> <br />50% <br /> <br /> <br />Percent <br /> <br /> <br />Structure of <em>Mâdi</em> is branching, so is part of a network. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />G. Place quality <br /> <br /> <br />G1. Adventure <br /> <br /> <br />5% <br /> <br /> <br />Number of positive responses <br /> <br /> <br />Positive responses in questionnaires <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />G2. Fun of space <br /> <br /> <br />100% <br /> <br /> <br />Number of positive responses <br /> <br /> <br />Positive responses in questionnaires <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />G3. Biodiversity <br /> <br /> <br />70% <br /> <br /> <br />Percent <br /> <br /> <br />Creating a list and determining score of <em>Mâdi</em> according to obtained information from the Park organization. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />As it is shown in Table 3, the indicators are grouped in seven categories: pedestrianism, security, safety, sociability, viability, physical aspects and qualities of place. Then the <em>Mâdi</em> of <em>Niasarm</em> has been assessed through the set of indicators defined in Table 1. Quantification and measurement of each indicator is explained and several techniques like questionnaire, mapping, observation and survey are used. <br />Results: The findings show that to become greenway, <em>Mâdi of Niasarm </em>needs to be improved. In seven established categories the situation is satisfactory in just one category of Safety. In two other categories (pedestrianism and physical aspects) the results is above the average of 50%. Concerning the rest, the situation is not satisfactory. For example the category of Security is below the total average. Diagram 1 shows seven categories and their respected indicators. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Match the parameters of Madies relative to Greenway <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Criteria and Indicator <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Diagram 1: seven categories and their respected indicators <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Conclusion: In conclusion as shown in results, the physical, functional and spatial similarity of Madies in Isfahan and greenway are proved; but according to this study, <em>Mâdies </em>do not function perfectly as a standard and greenway. The evaluation of <em>Mâdi of</em> <em>Niasarm</em> in this study in seven groups of criteria and 24 indicators shows that the efforts are necessary to make the existent <em>Madies</em> good greenways even if they are apt to be good ones. In some criteria such as C (Safety) <em>Mâdi of Niasarm</em> has approximate condition of a standard greenway. In three groups of A (Pedestrianism), F (Physical aspects) and G (Place quality) the score is above 50% and could be considered as acceptable. <br /><br clear="all" /> <br /> <br /> Introduction <br />Using greenways could be one of the ways which fulfill the improvement of urban streets. Greenways, as they are known, improve the pedestrianism and related qualities like climatic comfort, visual complexity and desirable serial visions. The objective of this research is to evaluate the capacity of <em>M</em><em>â</em><em>dies</em>[1] network in <em>Isfahan</em> to function as greenway. This research aims to assess in what extent they can play as main part of a vast green network. <em>Mâdies</em> are several streams divided directly from <em>Zayandeh-Rood </em>River<em>. </em>They constitute the main part of the historic-natural structureof <em>Isfahan</em>. There are about 250 km of these manmade streams which are perfectly planned, designed and constructed according to the topographic characteristic of the plain of Isfahan. Originally, <em>Mâdies</em> were created to irrigate the farmlands surrounding the river in the plain of <em>Isfahan</em> since the <em>Safavide</em> period. Today their role is completely changed; in one hand due to the drought of <em>Zayandeh-Rood </em>River (source of water in <em>Mâdies</em>) and expansion of city and land use transformation from agricultural to different urban land uses in the other hand. By the way, today <em>Mâdies </em>could play a vital role in improvement of environmental qualities despite their changing role. They are fundamental elements of urban structure in the city and reinforce the organic and natural aspects of urban planning and design as basic parts of greenway characteristics. Therefore they could be considered as main structure of green network in the city of Isfahan. As it is known, greenways enhance quality environment, aesthetic, recreation, education, relaxation, and preservation of habitation. Greenways can help the protection of ecological continuity. They are managed, planned and designed for several functions such as environmental, recreational, cultural, aesthetic and other purposes. So we can extract greenway characteristic from existing definitions such as their linear form, organic design, social inclusiveness and their perfect adaption to the urban environment. <em>Mâdies </em>can play a central role as part of a structure which is greenway network. To do this, it is necessary to know in what extend they are apt to this function. This paper tried to define what the strengths are and weakness of <em>Mâdies</em> to fulfill the task of being greenways. <br />Materials and methods <br />The first step of the method consists on description and definition of <em>Mâdies</em> and greenways as two principle parts of this study. The identification of two abovementioned concepts was necessary to establish the categories of indicators which make possible the comparison between them. Describing and categorizing the main characteristics of greenways was the next step of the research. In this part greenways are summarized across principal sources and expert in the field. The next step was defining the criteria and indicators to evaluate in what extent <em>Mâdies</em>could play the role of greenways in Isfahan. In-order to determine the indicators the main axis of precedent tables constitute the categories in which the indicators are extracted from different sources. The data is gathered through observation, noting and measurement. Table 1 shows the criteria, sub-criteria and indicators. <br />Table 1: Critera and indicators for assessment of Madies as greenways <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Criteria <br /> <br /> <br />Indicators <br /> <br /> <br />Niasarm <br /> <br /> <br />Unit <br /> <br /> <br />Quantification and Measurement <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />A. Pedestrianism <br /> <br /> <br />A1. Interconnection of pedestrians and cars <br /> <br /> <br />96% <br /> <br /> <br />Length (m). <br /> <br /> <br />Length of common path (pedestrians and cars) transportation. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />A2. Pavement facilitating pedestrian <br /> <br /> <br />34% <br /> <br /> <br />m2 <br /> <br /> <br />More convenient pavement covered percentage among 3 types identified. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />A3. Efficient width of pedestrian way <br /> <br /> <br />45%, <br /> <br /> <br />Width (m). <br /> <br /> <br />Width variation along Score<em> of Niasarm.</em> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />A4. Noise pollution rate <br /> <br /> <br />34% <br /> <br /> <br />dB <br /> <br /> <br />Average noise pollution recorded in one week with <em>Noise Dosimeter</em> and <em>Sound Label Meter</em> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />B. Security <br /> <br /> <br />B1. Nightlife uses <br /> <br /> <br />5% <br /> <br /> <br />Number/ unit of length <br /> <br /> <br />Land uses having nightlife potentials <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />B2. Social control <br /> <br /> <br />35% <br /> <br /> <br />Individual/ unit of surface <br /> <br /> <br />Number of individuals in space over 2 Hours (2 times a day), (+10→4 pts; 10-6→3 pts; 5-4→2 pts; 3-1→1pt; 0→0 point( <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />B3. Night lighting <br /> <br /> <br />45% <br /> <br /> <br />Lux /unit of length <br /> <br /> <br />M2 of alighted spaces/total space along <em>Mâdi</em> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />B4. Sense of security and control <br /> <br /> <br />40% <br /> <br /> <br />Number of positive responses <br /> <br /> <br />Positive responses in questionnaires <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />B5. Transparent fronts <br /> <br /> <br />25% <br /> <br /> <br />Unit/ length <br /> <br /> <br />Opening surfaces in m2/total surface <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />C. Safety <br /> <br /> <br />C1. Accident prone spots <br /> <br /> <br />90% <br /> <br /> <br />Number/ unit of length <br /> <br /> <br />Number of prone spots in length <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />C2. Sense of security in pathways <br /> <br /> <br />100% <br /> <br /> <br />Number of positive responses <br /> <br /> <br />Positive responses in questionnaires <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />D. Sociability <br /> <br /> <br />D1. Equipment and facilities <br /> <br /> <br />5% <br /> <br /> <br />Number in unit of surface /total <br /> <br /> <br />Average areas of Equipment and facilities measured in unit of surface/ total surface <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />D2. Programmed socio-petal spaces <br /> <br /> <br />5% <br /> <br /> <br />m2 of programmed spaces / m2 total <br /> <br /> <br />Average areas of programmed socio-petal spaces measured in m2 /total <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />D3.Public participation in maintenance <br /> <br /> <br />5% <br /> <br /> <br />Number of positive responses <br /> <br /> <br />Positive responses in questionnaires <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />D4. Place attachment rate <br /> <br /> <br />70% <br /> <br /> <br />Number of positive responses <br /> <br /> <br />Positive responses in questionnaires <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />E. Viability <br /> <br /> <br />E1. Inclusivity of space <br /> <br /> <br />25% <br /> <br /> <br />Percent <br /> <br /> <br />Diversity of different groups (sex, age) recorded in a week (2 times per day) <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />E2. Climatic comfort of space <br /> <br /> <br />100% <br /> <br /> <br />Percent <br /> <br /> <br />Creating a list and determining score of <em>Mâdi</em> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />E3. Permeability of space <br /> <br /> <br />5% <br /> <br /> <br />Block length (m). <br /> <br /> <br />Length of blocks measured by GIS <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />F. Physical aspects <br /> <br /> <br />F1. Geometry <br /> <br /> <br />100% <br /> <br /> <br />Percent <br /> <br /> <br />Linear form (of green way)→Best point; semi-linear→0.5 point; non-linear→0 point <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />F2. Structural elements <br /> <br /> <br />50% <br /> <br /> <br />Number in length <br /> <br /> <br />Elements of greenway (Corridors and pause points); <em>Mâdi</em> has no visible pause point <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />F3. Network character <br /> <br /> <br />50% <br /> <br /> <br />Percent <br /> <br /> <br />Structure of <em>Mâdi</em> is branching, so is part of a network. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />G. Place quality <br /> <br /> <br />G1. Adventure <br /> <br /> <br />5% <br /> <br /> <br />Number of positive responses <br /> <br /> <br />Positive responses in questionnaires <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />G2. Fun of space <br /> <br /> <br />100% <br /> <br /> <br />Number of positive responses <br /> <br /> <br />Positive responses in questionnaires <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />G3. Biodiversity <br /> <br /> <br />70% <br /> <br /> <br />Percent <br /> <br /> <br />Creating a list and determining score of <em>Mâdi</em> according to obtained information from the Park organization. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />As it is shown in Table 3, the indicators are grouped in seven categories: pedestrianism, security, safety, sociability, viability, physical aspects and qualities of place. Then the <em>Mâdi</em> of <em>Niasarm</em> has been assessed through the set of indicators defined in Table 1. Quantification and measurement of each indicator is explained and several techniques like questionnaire, mapping, observation and survey are used. <br />Results: The findings show that to become greenway, <em>Mâdi of Niasarm </em>needs to be improved. In seven established categories the situation is satisfactory in just one category of Safety. In two other categories (pedestrianism and physical aspects) the results is above the average of 50%. Concerning the rest, the situation is not satisfactory. For example the category of Security is below the total average. Diagram 1 shows seven categories and their respected indicators. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Match the parameters of Madies relative to Greenway <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Criteria and Indicator <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Diagram 1: seven categories and their respected indicators <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />Conclusion: In conclusion as shown in results, the physical, functional and spatial similarity of Madies in Isfahan and greenway are proved; but according to this study, <em>Mâdies </em>do not function perfectly as a standard and greenway. The evaluation of <em>Mâdi of</em> <em>Niasarm</em> in this study in seven groups of criteria and 24 indicators shows that the efforts are necessary to make the existent <em>Madies</em> good greenways even if they are apt to be good ones. In some criteria such as C (Safety) <em>Mâdi of Niasarm</em> has approximate condition of a standard greenway. In three groups of A (Pedestrianism), F (Physical aspects) and G (Place quality) the score is above 50% and could be considered as acceptable. <br /><br clear="all" /> <br /> <br /> https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_53020_c7713301116de31a6e496f5fffc7b843.pdfدانشگاه تهرانJournal of Environmental Studies1025-862040420141222The necessity of identifying and protecting green spaces based on local and regional condition in Iran (case study: Akbarieh garden of Birjand)The necessity of identifying and protecting green spaces based on local and regional condition in Iran (case study: Akbarieh garden of Birjand)108310985302110.22059/jes.2014.53021FARostamSaberifarAssociate Professor, Faculty of Economic and Social Sciences PNU, Tehran, Iran0000-0003-2113-5644AghdasKarampourGraduate student of Urban Planning of Payam Noor University, Tehran, IranHamidHalajmoghadamMaster of Science, Faculty of Economic and Social Sciences PNU, Tehran, IranJournal Article20140515Introduction <br />Iranian traditional cities represent a real symbol of stability and health. These conditions indicate that such urban planning design and program have been done thoughtfully and wisely. In these cities, the natural resources are used with minimal damage to existing endowments, and the highest efficiency is provided. But it often destroyed due to some people's ignorance and legal rules. For this reason, identifying and describing the position of such infrastructure and spaces can affect their conservation and sustainability. So that, this paper is to discuss one of these spaces-the garden Akbarieh of Birjand - and identify its location in this desert town. It is considered internationally as one of the nine important Iranian gardens. For this reason, this study is set out to provide and identify new information for people who are interested in the case. As the matter of fact, lack of winter and summer rain fall increasingly reduced green space and natural green area. It concerned the public greatly. In addition, the politician traffic had increased after Birjand were regarded as gate of East and Indian. Some countries such as English government established a political office in Birjand. This traffic make the political representative try to consult with local authorities before central government conservation. Such meetings and traffics required particular situations. So, the proper condition designed and constructed regarding to natural and social condition in a different eras. Various reasons caused the garden remains ordinary or destroyed over time. Undoubtedly, remained cases have a particular condition. Introducing these attractions could improve their maintenance and it encourages some creative people to build such gardens. <br /> <br />Methods <br />This study has descriptive and analytical approach and the required information are compiled through field visits, expert opinions and use of historical documents. For this purpose, individuals and groups have been questioned related to restoration of the historical garden of Birjand in Iran with sufficient information and experience. Finally, the gathered information summarized and categorized accurately. According to type of data collected, analysis conducted was based on the content type and on the view of experts. Because there is no single opinion about damage kind and destruction process, all commands have been studied and the elements which overlap in the cases under study have taken into account in final analysis. For example, among functions of the garden, after Iran revolution, the item which was accepted plentifully was considered. So, only one function was analyzed. Other cases should be used based on context. <br />Akbarieh garden is located in the south of Birjand, an ancient city near the Bagheran foothills. According to available information, the construction of the complex started in the late Zandiye era and continued in Pahlavi early stages. More ancient part of Shams Al Moluk building is in easternmost garden built on two floors. Before constructing the garden and the building some structures were connected to the surrounding residential context, and now we can see some composition in the new space. Last part of the complex is a building known as ceremonial building constructed by Shokat Al Moluk at the final Ghajar era. This part of the building is currently considered as the central part of the complex which is decorated with beautiful views. <br /> <br />Results and discussion <br />According to geometry regularity in tabulating and adaption of entrance axe with palace axes and entrance portal, Akbarieh garden involves an absolute regularity geometry. It is a great sample of Iranian gardens. Based on situations and functional requirements for various purposes, several different buildings are added to it. They are formed between main and south garden organically. Efficiency, hierarchy, view quality, and creating path movement with a beautiful perspective of garden and buildings were regarded in the next development. Also, existing the wide terrace and porch caused dominated perspective increased its visual quality. <br />The main courtyard of garden is rectangular with dimensions of 217 × 94 m located along north-south side and its building located on the south side. Like most Iranian gardens, the main axis of the garden is located on the longitudinal axis and two rows of old age pine trees with boxwood shrubs demonstrated outlook. In the middle, in the end of the garden path and in front of the building there are pools focused on water as the main element to form this garden and in addition the garden image reflected in water. the harmonious relation between the carved form on main building view and the sky line and main terrace inspires an attraction. The garden area is 35000 m2 surrounded by mud-brick wall. Architectural space divided into three parts: main structure, service space, and stable. <br />Generally buildings extend from East to Wes. The first building is in the east area in the main Street. Other buildings has arisen according demands coordinate with the previous structure. Although Akbarieh garden and its buildings was not constructed in a particular time and in a specified period, but it considered a full complex due to the similarity in construction and architecture. <br />The most visible garden space is the main floor located in the middle of the fence. This space includes tabulate, main and sub streets, general road and pools. Tabulate are considered a section to build the original garden space. Main space was created with replicates and taking together. Although these units include an order internally, it includes the total garden space externally. In relationship with other space they formed more wide space. <br />Streets enumerated as other garden body. There is a main street branched in sub street. It relates main garden portal into central structure. There are various spaces and scenes in the main street. Such scenes and spaces are the main street wall consisted of shadowy green tree and a pool in the middle of the garden. Also there is an extended scene in which main building with a pool in front of it and flowerbeds with ornamental flowers were noticeable. <br />The important structural elements of garden can be studied in three main sections. For example, if fence of gardens to be consider in overall look, it can be considered a heating element. Garden fence constructed from brick surrounded with farms. Urban development changes it in residential area. Fence is the most important element of garden space and it affected on internal and external view. <br />All elements constituted a garden like water movement, tree, and plants and other spaces were displayed with a bed called ground. Against the sky, ground creates a space heated with garden fence. Some factor such as slope, required area, the water presence time, geometry and order of organizing the garden and climate are influenced on forming floor. <br />Entrance façade and central building are the most important element in garden. Although, structures such as main garden façade, court building, main building, and service building and overhead stair considered a little scale, they have spatial performance. <br />In akbarieh garden, the specific performance was identified for the main streets and main façade. Nevertheless, it used for reception for some quest. Other performances defined for main building. So that, performances defined as following: <br />First section: external space is for service and special functions located along the main building. <br />Second section: Some sub spaces defined as a set of performance related to habitation located around main space. <br />Third section: Some service performance and guard house such as stable located out of main space. <br /> <br />Conclusion <br />Due to terrible heat and dust resulting from warm and flaring wind and lack of proper water, availability of green space is inevitable in desert and semi desert zone. It was important in Birjand, because this city was the center of political representative traffic. Such necessity formed various gardens such as Akbarieh which had been identified a territory of horizontal development by extending town forward proper farms. <br />In fact, such space corresponds with nature as well as it show planning and formation of habitants. However, relationships and factors of such a garden survival can be used as guidance for new generations in post modernism in which people suffer from lack of green space. The issue receives attention if we know some gardens got destroyed intentionally or not intended. In fact, documenting the garden history can be an entrance to maintain and regenerate them. Because the garden is a dynamic organ, it changed over time. So, it should remain unchanged permanently. <br />If early garden plot changed and some elements removed or added, it could find the different schema in various eras by distinguishing the natural and historical layers of the garden. Based on obtained data, historical structure or initial plan improved. To this end in view, current study emphasized on explanation of Akbarieh garden’s position as one of the elements effected on structure and performance of Birjand, specially supplying the green space and their performance. <br />These gardens as a complete structure indicate a close relationship between the cultural and natural bed and it is a sign of aligned needs of humans and nature. Manufacture create the garden based on experience resulted to survive natural bed. Surviving this garden is important because Birjand located in the desert area of Khorasan encountered challenges of green and natural space. Birjand developed in Safaviye era. Some its historical garden developed in the last Zandie era, Ghajar and Pahlavi. It depended to this type of space expressively. A city with climate like Birjand affected from Sistan 120 days wind did not survive without this spaces. For this reason this garden was registered in Cultural heritage list in 35th UNESCOmeeting, 2011. <br />In addition, creating this garden based on special bed corresponding with principles and methods of Iranian architect is a dominant value. Proper localization to preparing early bed, choosing quit plant species, method of agriculture demonstrated the Iranian creativity for using limited source. The plot of this garden plays an important role in developing Birjand because all geometric principle such as symmetry, view extend, water axle, rectangular geometry were used. In fact, regarding to position and localization resulted from environment ability, affected on developing the city. So this caused internal developing and keeps city originality. <br />Finally, it can be stated that Akbarieh garden highlighted due to its special conditions, historical construction period and designing bed, in addition to various features of other garden. This special feature affected on Birjand structure and any destruction threat the originality of Birjand and gardens. In addition, the mentioned garden demonstrated a close relationship between cultural and natural bed. Also, it corresponds with human being and nature.Introduction <br />Iranian traditional cities represent a real symbol of stability and health. These conditions indicate that such urban planning design and program have been done thoughtfully and wisely. In these cities, the natural resources are used with minimal damage to existing endowments, and the highest efficiency is provided. But it often destroyed due to some people's ignorance and legal rules. For this reason, identifying and describing the position of such infrastructure and spaces can affect their conservation and sustainability. So that, this paper is to discuss one of these spaces-the garden Akbarieh of Birjand - and identify its location in this desert town. It is considered internationally as one of the nine important Iranian gardens. For this reason, this study is set out to provide and identify new information for people who are interested in the case. As the matter of fact, lack of winter and summer rain fall increasingly reduced green space and natural green area. It concerned the public greatly. In addition, the politician traffic had increased after Birjand were regarded as gate of East and Indian. Some countries such as English government established a political office in Birjand. This traffic make the political representative try to consult with local authorities before central government conservation. Such meetings and traffics required particular situations. So, the proper condition designed and constructed regarding to natural and social condition in a different eras. Various reasons caused the garden remains ordinary or destroyed over time. Undoubtedly, remained cases have a particular condition. Introducing these attractions could improve their maintenance and it encourages some creative people to build such gardens. <br /> <br />Methods <br />This study has descriptive and analytical approach and the required information are compiled through field visits, expert opinions and use of historical documents. For this purpose, individuals and groups have been questioned related to restoration of the historical garden of Birjand in Iran with sufficient information and experience. Finally, the gathered information summarized and categorized accurately. According to type of data collected, analysis conducted was based on the content type and on the view of experts. Because there is no single opinion about damage kind and destruction process, all commands have been studied and the elements which overlap in the cases under study have taken into account in final analysis. For example, among functions of the garden, after Iran revolution, the item which was accepted plentifully was considered. So, only one function was analyzed. Other cases should be used based on context. <br />Akbarieh garden is located in the south of Birjand, an ancient city near the Bagheran foothills. According to available information, the construction of the complex started in the late Zandiye era and continued in Pahlavi early stages. More ancient part of Shams Al Moluk building is in easternmost garden built on two floors. Before constructing the garden and the building some structures were connected to the surrounding residential context, and now we can see some composition in the new space. Last part of the complex is a building known as ceremonial building constructed by Shokat Al Moluk at the final Ghajar era. This part of the building is currently considered as the central part of the complex which is decorated with beautiful views. <br /> <br />Results and discussion <br />According to geometry regularity in tabulating and adaption of entrance axe with palace axes and entrance portal, Akbarieh garden involves an absolute regularity geometry. It is a great sample of Iranian gardens. Based on situations and functional requirements for various purposes, several different buildings are added to it. They are formed between main and south garden organically. Efficiency, hierarchy, view quality, and creating path movement with a beautiful perspective of garden and buildings were regarded in the next development. Also, existing the wide terrace and porch caused dominated perspective increased its visual quality. <br />The main courtyard of garden is rectangular with dimensions of 217 × 94 m located along north-south side and its building located on the south side. Like most Iranian gardens, the main axis of the garden is located on the longitudinal axis and two rows of old age pine trees with boxwood shrubs demonstrated outlook. In the middle, in the end of the garden path and in front of the building there are pools focused on water as the main element to form this garden and in addition the garden image reflected in water. the harmonious relation between the carved form on main building view and the sky line and main terrace inspires an attraction. The garden area is 35000 m2 surrounded by mud-brick wall. Architectural space divided into three parts: main structure, service space, and stable. <br />Generally buildings extend from East to Wes. The first building is in the east area in the main Street. Other buildings has arisen according demands coordinate with the previous structure. Although Akbarieh garden and its buildings was not constructed in a particular time and in a specified period, but it considered a full complex due to the similarity in construction and architecture. <br />The most visible garden space is the main floor located in the middle of the fence. This space includes tabulate, main and sub streets, general road and pools. Tabulate are considered a section to build the original garden space. Main space was created with replicates and taking together. Although these units include an order internally, it includes the total garden space externally. In relationship with other space they formed more wide space. <br />Streets enumerated as other garden body. There is a main street branched in sub street. It relates main garden portal into central structure. There are various spaces and scenes in the main street. Such scenes and spaces are the main street wall consisted of shadowy green tree and a pool in the middle of the garden. Also there is an extended scene in which main building with a pool in front of it and flowerbeds with ornamental flowers were noticeable. <br />The important structural elements of garden can be studied in three main sections. For example, if fence of gardens to be consider in overall look, it can be considered a heating element. Garden fence constructed from brick surrounded with farms. Urban development changes it in residential area. Fence is the most important element of garden space and it affected on internal and external view. <br />All elements constituted a garden like water movement, tree, and plants and other spaces were displayed with a bed called ground. Against the sky, ground creates a space heated with garden fence. Some factor such as slope, required area, the water presence time, geometry and order of organizing the garden and climate are influenced on forming floor. <br />Entrance façade and central building are the most important element in garden. Although, structures such as main garden façade, court building, main building, and service building and overhead stair considered a little scale, they have spatial performance. <br />In akbarieh garden, the specific performance was identified for the main streets and main façade. Nevertheless, it used for reception for some quest. Other performances defined for main building. So that, performances defined as following: <br />First section: external space is for service and special functions located along the main building. <br />Second section: Some sub spaces defined as a set of performance related to habitation located around main space. <br />Third section: Some service performance and guard house such as stable located out of main space. <br /> <br />Conclusion <br />Due to terrible heat and dust resulting from warm and flaring wind and lack of proper water, availability of green space is inevitable in desert and semi desert zone. It was important in Birjand, because this city was the center of political representative traffic. Such necessity formed various gardens such as Akbarieh which had been identified a territory of horizontal development by extending town forward proper farms. <br />In fact, such space corresponds with nature as well as it show planning and formation of habitants. However, relationships and factors of such a garden survival can be used as guidance for new generations in post modernism in which people suffer from lack of green space. The issue receives attention if we know some gardens got destroyed intentionally or not intended. In fact, documenting the garden history can be an entrance to maintain and regenerate them. Because the garden is a dynamic organ, it changed over time. So, it should remain unchanged permanently. <br />If early garden plot changed and some elements removed or added, it could find the different schema in various eras by distinguishing the natural and historical layers of the garden. Based on obtained data, historical structure or initial plan improved. To this end in view, current study emphasized on explanation of Akbarieh garden’s position as one of the elements effected on structure and performance of Birjand, specially supplying the green space and their performance. <br />These gardens as a complete structure indicate a close relationship between the cultural and natural bed and it is a sign of aligned needs of humans and nature. Manufacture create the garden based on experience resulted to survive natural bed. Surviving this garden is important because Birjand located in the desert area of Khorasan encountered challenges of green and natural space. Birjand developed in Safaviye era. Some its historical garden developed in the last Zandie era, Ghajar and Pahlavi. It depended to this type of space expressively. A city with climate like Birjand affected from Sistan 120 days wind did not survive without this spaces. For this reason this garden was registered in Cultural heritage list in 35th UNESCOmeeting, 2011. <br />In addition, creating this garden based on special bed corresponding with principles and methods of Iranian architect is a dominant value. Proper localization to preparing early bed, choosing quit plant species, method of agriculture demonstrated the Iranian creativity for using limited source. The plot of this garden plays an important role in developing Birjand because all geometric principle such as symmetry, view extend, water axle, rectangular geometry were used. In fact, regarding to position and localization resulted from environment ability, affected on developing the city. So this caused internal developing and keeps city originality. <br />Finally, it can be stated that Akbarieh garden highlighted due to its special conditions, historical construction period and designing bed, in addition to various features of other garden. This special feature affected on Birjand structure and any destruction threat the originality of Birjand and gardens. In addition, the mentioned garden demonstrated a close relationship between cultural and natural bed. Also, it corresponds with human being and nature.https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_53021_c14db9d5c649fe00dd5a4b8545286dd5.pdfدانشگاه تهرانJournal of Environmental Studies1025-862040420141222English AbstractsEnglish Abstracts1575338310.22059/jes.2014.53383FAJournal Article20150428https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_53383_95e68016ee52d393ed8c90fb2d9df28a.pdf