University of Tehran Journal of Environmental Studies 1025-8620 51 4 2026 03 16 Analysis of Spatio-Temporal Changes in Ecological Sources Identified Using the Morphological Spatial Pattern Analysis (MSPA) Method and Ecosystem Services Assessment in the Hyrcanian Forests Analysis of Spatio-Temporal Changes in Ecological Sources Identified Using the Morphological Spatial Pattern Analysis (MSPA) Method and Ecosystem Services Assessment in the Hyrcanian Forests 411 430 106245 10.22059/jes.2025.387395.1008564 FA Sepideh Karimi Department of Environmental Planning, Management and HSE, Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran. 0009-0003-0988-4148 Mohammad Javad Amiri Department of Disaster Engineering, Education and Environmental Systems, Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran. Ahmad Reza Yavari Department of Environmental Planning, Management and HSE, Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran. 0000-0003-2786-379X Journal Article 2024 12 28 Objective: The issues of loss and fragmentation of forest habitats are significant challenges diminishing the resilience of these ecosystems. The identification of ecological source regions is crucial for enhancing landscape connectivity and building ecological networks. These regions not only provide suitable habitats for species but are also essential in sustaining ecological processes and functions. This study employed a combination of morphological spatial pattern analysis (MSPA) and ecosystem service assessment to identify critical locations for sustaining ecological connectivity and providing multiple ecosystem services within the ecological networks. Ecological sources were, thus, identified, and their temporal trends were assessed for the years 2002, 2013, and 2022. Method: In order to meet the research objectives, InVEST software was used to model ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration, flood retention, and habitat quality. The results of these models were integrated using the fuzzy weighted overlay method. Subsequently, the core areas that were determined by the MSPA method were integrated with the regions that provided the most ecosystem services. Temporal changes in these areas were then analyzed by examining 20 years of data. To provide a thorough method aimed at locating regions that have not been impacted by human-induced degradation, a set of threat factors were also used in the habitat quality mapping process, in which the use of the Nighttime Light Index and Impervious Surface Index specifically played a pivotal role in identifying high-quality habitats. Results: According to the derived results of the temporal change analysis, it was demonstrated that ecological sources shrank by 29,053 hectares during the study period, and the counties of Abbasabad, Chalous, and Nowshahr witnessed the highest declines. The analysis of land cover changes in 2002, 2013, and 2022 revealed that built-up areas increased by 12,473 hectares and agricultural land by 7,156 hectares, while forest area decreased by 32,723 hectares. Moreover, the results of the morphological spatial pattern analysis indicated that the core class had the largest share in the study area during the period of investigation. The results of this study also illustrated that in 20 years, the habitat quality within the area had declined. The greatest reduction in habitat quality occurred in the northern coastal areas of the study area, which were influenced by human-made land cover and road networks, acting as serious threats to wildlife. Conclusions: According to the results, assessing how multiple ecosystem services are distributed spatially is crucial in effective conservation planning. These findings can play an important role in planning and conserving key patches of the Hyrcanian forests and assist policymakers and managers in the sustainable management of these areas. Objective: The issues of loss and fragmentation of forest habitats are significant challenges diminishing the resilience of these ecosystems. The identification of ecological source regions is crucial for enhancing landscape connectivity and building ecological networks. These regions not only provide suitable habitats for species but are also essential in sustaining ecological processes and functions. This study employed a combination of morphological spatial pattern analysis (MSPA) and ecosystem service assessment to identify critical locations for sustaining ecological connectivity and providing multiple ecosystem services within the ecological networks. Ecological sources were, thus, identified, and their temporal trends were assessed for the years 2002, 2013, and 2022. Method: In order to meet the research objectives, InVEST software was used to model ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration, flood retention, and habitat quality. The results of these models were integrated using the fuzzy weighted overlay method. Subsequently, the core areas that were determined by the MSPA method were integrated with the regions that provided the most ecosystem services. Temporal changes in these areas were then analyzed by examining 20 years of data. To provide a thorough method aimed at locating regions that have not been impacted by human-induced degradation, a set of threat factors were also used in the habitat quality mapping process, in which the use of the Nighttime Light Index and Impervious Surface Index specifically played a pivotal role in identifying high-quality habitats. Results: According to the derived results of the temporal change analysis, it was demonstrated that ecological sources shrank by 29,053 hectares during the study period, and the counties of Abbasabad, Chalous, and Nowshahr witnessed the highest declines. The analysis of land cover changes in 2002, 2013, and 2022 revealed that built-up areas increased by 12,473 hectares and agricultural land by 7,156 hectares, while forest area decreased by 32,723 hectares. Moreover, the results of the morphological spatial pattern analysis indicated that the core class had the largest share in the study area during the period of investigation. The results of this study also illustrated that in 20 years, the habitat quality within the area had declined. The greatest reduction in habitat quality occurred in the northern coastal areas of the study area, which were influenced by human-made land cover and road networks, acting as serious threats to wildlife. Conclusions: According to the results, assessing how multiple ecosystem services are distributed spatially is crucial in effective conservation planning. These findings can play an important role in planning and conserving key patches of the Hyrcanian forests and assist policymakers and managers in the sustainable management of these areas.

https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_106245_0534c85cc1546a62c77fd53c21c9aa8d.pdf

University of Tehran Journal of Environmental Studies 1025-8620 51 4 2026 03 16 The Effects of Climate and Vegetation Changes on Bird Diversity and Abundance in the Gandoman International Wetland, and Ranking the Wetland's Threatening Factors The Effects of Climate and Vegetation Changes on Bird Diversity and Abundance in the Gandoman International Wetland, and Ranking the Wetland's Threatening Factors 431 452 106247 10.22059/jes.2026.402807.1008639 FA Marziyeh Ghaffari Farsani Department of Natural Resources, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran, Mansoureh Malekian Department of Natural Resources, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran. 0000-0002-6387-0850 Fahime Eslami Department of Environment, Chaharmahal va Bakhtiari Provincial Office, Shahr-e-Kord, Iran. Journal Article 2025 09 29 Objective: Gandoman Wetland, located in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province, Iran, has increasingly been threatened by anthropogenic activities and climate change. Water extraction, agricultural runoff, and recurrent droughts have compromised its ecological stability. This study aimed to analyze changes in climatic variables and vegetation in the Gandoman Wetland and to assess their effects on bird diversity and abundance from 2011 to 2023, as well as to rank the factors threatening this wetland. Method: Winter bird census data from 2011 to 2023 were obtained, and diversity indices—including Shannon–Wiener, Simpson, and Camargo evenness—were calculated. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was extracted from Landsat 7 and Landsat 8 satellite images for the study period. The Mann-Kendall test was used to evaluate trends in annual rainfall, mean annual temperature, SPI, NDVI, and diversity and evenness indices throughout the study period. To investigate the effects of climatic variables and vegetation on the abundance and diversity of wetland birds, Pearson correlation analyses were conducted. Threatening factors to the wetland were identified through field surveys and existing reports, and the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) was performed to rank these threats. Results: The results revealed significant fluctuations in migratory bird abundance and species richness. The total number of species increased from 25 in 2011 to 57 in 2021. The annual mean temperature showed an increasing trend (Z = 2.0, p = 0.05), while rainfall showed a significant decreasing trend (Z = -2.2, p = 0.02). The SPI index also demonstrated a significant decline (Z = -3.7, p = 0.00). Conversely, the NDVI index displayed a significant increasing trend (Z = 2.6, p = 0.02). Additionally, the Simpson, Shannon-Wiener, and evenness indices all showed decreasing trends, indicating a reduction in diversity and the dominance of certain species. A positive correlation was observed between the NDVI index and the abundance, species richness, diversity, and evenness indices of birds. This relationship may reflect the density of aquatic plants that provide food, nesting sites, and shelter for birds. The positive correlation between precipitation and SPI with bird abundance and diversity indicates the direct impact of climatic conditions on the lives of organisms in this region. Hierarchical analysis revealed that four factors—agricultural water withdrawal (0.30), drought (0.25), sewage inflow (0.13), and livestock grazing (0.11)—had the greatest influence. Conclusions: This study demonstrated that Gandoman Wetland has experienced significant ecological fluctuations, with both biodiversity and vegetation cover showing sensitivity to climatic and anthropogenic factors. Human activities, particularly uncontrolled water extraction and agricultural effluents, were identified as the primary threats, while climate change exacerbated these impacts. Objective: Gandoman Wetland, located in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province, Iran, has increasingly been threatened by anthropogenic activities and climate change. Water extraction, agricultural runoff, and recurrent droughts have compromised its ecological stability. This study aimed to analyze changes in climatic variables and vegetation in the Gandoman Wetland and to assess their effects on bird diversity and abundance from 2011 to 2023, as well as to rank the factors threatening this wetland. Method: Winter bird census data from 2011 to 2023 were obtained, and diversity indices—including Shannon–Wiener, Simpson, and Camargo evenness—were calculated. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was extracted from Landsat 7 and Landsat 8 satellite images for the study period. The Mann-Kendall test was used to evaluate trends in annual rainfall, mean annual temperature, SPI, NDVI, and diversity and evenness indices throughout the study period. To investigate the effects of climatic variables and vegetation on the abundance and diversity of wetland birds, Pearson correlation analyses were conducted. Threatening factors to the wetland were identified through field surveys and existing reports, and the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) was performed to rank these threats. Results: The results revealed significant fluctuations in migratory bird abundance and species richness. The total number of species increased from 25 in 2011 to 57 in 2021. The annual mean temperature showed an increasing trend (Z = 2.0, p = 0.05), while rainfall showed a significant decreasing trend (Z = -2.2, p = 0.02). The SPI index also demonstrated a significant decline (Z = -3.7, p = 0.00). Conversely, the NDVI index displayed a significant increasing trend (Z = 2.6, p = 0.02). Additionally, the Simpson, Shannon-Wiener, and evenness indices all showed decreasing trends, indicating a reduction in diversity and the dominance of certain species. A positive correlation was observed between the NDVI index and the abundance, species richness, diversity, and evenness indices of birds. This relationship may reflect the density of aquatic plants that provide food, nesting sites, and shelter for birds. The positive correlation between precipitation and SPI with bird abundance and diversity indicates the direct impact of climatic conditions on the lives of organisms in this region. Hierarchical analysis revealed that four factors—agricultural water withdrawal (0.30), drought (0.25), sewage inflow (0.13), and livestock grazing (0.11)—had the greatest influence. Conclusions: This study demonstrated that Gandoman Wetland has experienced significant ecological fluctuations, with both biodiversity and vegetation cover showing sensitivity to climatic and anthropogenic factors. Human activities, particularly uncontrolled water extraction and agricultural effluents, were identified as the primary threats, while climate change exacerbated these impacts.

https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_106247_7cd01463cf31179ff2903f023b90d51d.pdf

University of Tehran Journal of Environmental Studies 1025-8620 51 4 2026 03 16 Changes in the Area of the Hamoun Wetlands and Their Role in Dust Storm Occurrences in the Sistan Plain Changes in the Area of the Hamoun Wetlands and Their Role in Dust Storm Occurrences in the Sistan Plain 453 472 106248 10.22059/jes.2026.406010.1008652 FA Fatemrh Dargahian Desert Research Department, Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, Agricultural Research Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Tehran, Iran. Yosef Mousivand Department of Remote Sensing, Faculty of Geography, University of Kharazmi, Tehran, Iran. Katayoun Cheraghi Department of Remote Sensing, Faculty of Geography, University of Kharazmi, Tehran, Iran. Journal Article 2025 11 10 Objective: The Hamoun lakes of Sistan are among the most unstable ecosystems in Iran. Their most important climatic features are the occurrence of severe floods and severe and widespread droughts. Changes in the area of the Hamoun wetlands water have a very high variability coefficient under the influence of numerous factors. The instability of the water inflow and its low durability make any planning and sustainable development in this region difficult. Changes in the area of the Hamoun wetlands water can double the challenge of dust in the Sistan Plain. Method: Landsat satellite images and meteorological data were used to investigate the relationship between changes in the water area of the Hamoun wetlands and the number of dust events in the Sistan Plain. Using Landsat 5, 7, 8, and 9 satellite images on the Google Earth Engine platform, taking into account the assumption of accepting a maximum of 20% cloud cover on monthly images, the changes in the cover of Hamoon Lakes in 4 classes of water, soil, vegetation, and water-vegetation mixture were programmed for the statistical period from 1987 to 2023, and the trend of changes in each class was plotted. Using dust phenomenon codes, the number of events, days, and dust storms was extracted. Applying the scatter plots and R2 statistics, the correlation value of dust events with changes in water area was examined. Results: The results showed no strong and significant relationship between the number of dusty days in the Sistan Plain and changes in the water area of the Hamoun lakes; the reason was that dusty days could be any day with one to eight dust reports in the Synoptic. The number of events and its relationship with changes in the water area were examined. The results showed a strong and significant negative relationship between changes in the water area and the number of dust events. On the other hand, the drying of the bottom of the Hamoun lakes due to the fine-grained sediments with high volume and the impact of upstream river sediments on their bottom affected the horizontal field of view. The study of the relationship between dust storms and a horizontal field of view of one kilometer and less was explained with a very good coefficient of explanation by the trend of annual changes in the water area of the Hamoun lakes. Conclusions: According to the results, the three main influential factors in the occurrence of dust storms in the study area were identified as the regional circulation of the atmosphere, the specific topography of the region, and the presence of fine-grained sediments in the Hamoun wetlands area. During the 120-day wind season of Sistan, this route becomes dry, which as a result increases the concentration of particles. Therefore, if it is wet, it can affect the field of view and reduce the concentration and intensity of the dust storm. Based on the findings, the number of dust storms showed a very strong and inverse relationship with the lack of water cover and the drying of the Hamoun lakes’ bed. It is suggested that the water rights of the wetlands be provided through diplomacy. Objective: The Hamoun lakes of Sistan are among the most unstable ecosystems in Iran. Their most important climatic features are the occurrence of severe floods and severe and widespread droughts. Changes in the area of the Hamoun wetlands water have a very high variability coefficient under the influence of numerous factors. The instability of the water inflow and its low durability make any planning and sustainable development in this region difficult. Changes in the area of the Hamoun wetlands water can double the challenge of dust in the Sistan Plain. Method: Landsat satellite images and meteorological data were used to investigate the relationship between changes in the water area of the Hamoun wetlands and the number of dust events in the Sistan Plain. Using Landsat 5, 7, 8, and 9 satellite images on the Google Earth Engine platform, taking into account the assumption of accepting a maximum of 20% cloud cover on monthly images, the changes in the cover of Hamoon Lakes in 4 classes of water, soil, vegetation, and water-vegetation mixture were programmed for the statistical period from 1987 to 2023, and the trend of changes in each class was plotted. Using dust phenomenon codes, the number of events, days, and dust storms was extracted. Applying the scatter plots and R2 statistics, the correlation value of dust events with changes in water area was examined. Results: The results showed no strong and significant relationship between the number of dusty days in the Sistan Plain and changes in the water area of the Hamoun lakes; the reason was that dusty days could be any day with one to eight dust reports in the Synoptic. The number of events and its relationship with changes in the water area were examined. The results showed a strong and significant negative relationship between changes in the water area and the number of dust events. On the other hand, the drying of the bottom of the Hamoun lakes due to the fine-grained sediments with high volume and the impact of upstream river sediments on their bottom affected the horizontal field of view. The study of the relationship between dust storms and a horizontal field of view of one kilometer and less was explained with a very good coefficient of explanation by the trend of annual changes in the water area of the Hamoun lakes. Conclusions: According to the results, the three main influential factors in the occurrence of dust storms in the study area were identified as the regional circulation of the atmosphere, the specific topography of the region, and the presence of fine-grained sediments in the Hamoun wetlands area. During the 120-day wind season of Sistan, this route becomes dry, which as a result increases the concentration of particles. Therefore, if it is wet, it can affect the field of view and reduce the concentration and intensity of the dust storm. Based on the findings, the number of dust storms showed a very strong and inverse relationship with the lack of water cover and the drying of the Hamoun lakes’ bed. It is suggested that the water rights of the wetlands be provided through diplomacy.

https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_106248_6e35030dc3da38e59d226e0256e289f0.pdf

University of Tehran Journal of Environmental Studies 1025-8620 51 4 2026 03 16 Morphological Trade-offs in Urban Microclimates: A Challenge for Achieving Sustainable Environmental Comfort Morphological Trade-offs in Urban Microclimates: A Challenge for Achieving Sustainable Environmental Comfort 473 492 106249 10.22059/jes.2026.408070.1008662 FA Rezvan Khalvandi Department of Architecture, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran. Mehrdad Karimimoshaver Department of Architecture, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran. Journal Article 2025 12 22 Objective: The inherent complexity of urban microclimates drives proposed strategies for enhancing habitability and comfort into pathways that often yield multiple, sometimes conflicting effects; thus, optimizing one comfort metric can inadvertently degrade others. This is crucial, as the improper placement of any urban element can cause mitigation strategies to produce effects contrary to their intended purpose. A sustainable and resilient urban environment can be achieved when optimal parameters are quantified and applied with consideration for all dimensions of comfort and livability. Method: To address the identified gap, this research utilized ANSYS CFX CFD software to calculate and benchmark the performance efficiencies of common urban morphological components against various microclimate comfort metrics. Subsequently, a multi-criteria decision-making framework was applied to logically integrate these quantitative performance metrics, thereby identifying the optimal morphological configuration that satisfies the required balance of all comfort factors. This research established a foundational selection basis by first categorizing urban building block elements based on shared structural characteristics. The categories were then systematically compared based on their influence on street canyon temperature, pressure, and wind velocity. Finally, a comprehensive ranking system was derived to guide the selection of the optimal form and strategy aligned with specific urban texture conditions. The prevalence of a common structural typology across all examined groups helped the accurate quantification of the percentage of usefulness gained from modifying specific building geometries. Given the critical air quality of Tehran, all simulation input values were proportionally calibrated to the city’s climate profile, ensuring the derived solutions were directly relevant to improving its environmental health. Results: Across all tested variables, changes to the fundamental building block form and geometry proved to be the dominant factor in improving holistic street canyon environments, resulting in performance efficiencies reaching 70% compared to standard designs. Conversely, strategies focused on localized volumetric changes or facade-based flow modification achieved significantly lower effectiveness, improving street-canyon comfort metrics by 40%. Conclusions: This study subsequently introduced a ranking mechanism to systematically evaluate and prioritize intervention tools according to their measurable impact on street-canyon microclimate performance. Focusing the analysis on the primary drivers—temperature, wind speed, and pressure—allows researchers to clearly demonstrate how macro-scale structural modifications exert a greater control over these fundamental factors, thereby minimizing inherent inter-variable conflicts. Objective: The inherent complexity of urban microclimates drives proposed strategies for enhancing habitability and comfort into pathways that often yield multiple, sometimes conflicting effects; thus, optimizing one comfort metric can inadvertently degrade others. This is crucial, as the improper placement of any urban element can cause mitigation strategies to produce effects contrary to their intended purpose. A sustainable and resilient urban environment can be achieved when optimal parameters are quantified and applied with consideration for all dimensions of comfort and livability. Method: To address the identified gap, this research utilized ANSYS CFX CFD software to calculate and benchmark the performance efficiencies of common urban morphological components against various microclimate comfort metrics. Subsequently, a multi-criteria decision-making framework was applied to logically integrate these quantitative performance metrics, thereby identifying the optimal morphological configuration that satisfies the required balance of all comfort factors. This research established a foundational selection basis by first categorizing urban building block elements based on shared structural characteristics. The categories were then systematically compared based on their influence on street canyon temperature, pressure, and wind velocity. Finally, a comprehensive ranking system was derived to guide the selection of the optimal form and strategy aligned with specific urban texture conditions. The prevalence of a common structural typology across all examined groups helped the accurate quantification of the percentage of usefulness gained from modifying specific building geometries. Given the critical air quality of Tehran, all simulation input values were proportionally calibrated to the city’s climate profile, ensuring the derived solutions were directly relevant to improving its environmental health. Results: Across all tested variables, changes to the fundamental building block form and geometry proved to be the dominant factor in improving holistic street canyon environments, resulting in performance efficiencies reaching 70% compared to standard designs. Conversely, strategies focused on localized volumetric changes or facade-based flow modification achieved significantly lower effectiveness, improving street-canyon comfort metrics by 40%. Conclusions: This study subsequently introduced a ranking mechanism to systematically evaluate and prioritize intervention tools according to their measurable impact on street-canyon microclimate performance. Focusing the analysis on the primary drivers—temperature, wind speed, and pressure—allows researchers to clearly demonstrate how macro-scale structural modifications exert a greater control over these fundamental factors, thereby minimizing inherent inter-variable conflicts.

https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_106249_58f17235c4b1cda31ff8f6f111c5ff8d.pdf

University of Tehran Journal of Environmental Studies 1025-8620 51 4 2026 03 16 Investigating the Impact of Different Patterns of Residential Block Placement on Improving Thermal Comfort in Outdoor Spaces Investigating the Impact of Different Patterns of Residential Block Placement on Improving Thermal Comfort in Outdoor Spaces 493 510 106332 10.22059/jes.2026.408957.1008666 FA Mahsa Samadpour Shahrak Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Technical and Vocational University (TVU), Tehran, Iran. Journal Article 2026 01 02 Objective: Creating thermal comfort conditions in urban open spaces is a crucial factor in maintaining pedestrians’ health. This issue is important around residential blocks due to the long-term presence of people in the open spaces. In this study, thermal comfort conditions around residential blocks are investigated. The aim of the study is to examine the effect of different patterns of residential block placement on environmental conditions in the open spaces of the city of Tabriz, Iran, in the summer. Method: To perform this study, initially the patterns of residential block placement in the city of Tabriz were investigated, and it was determined that the scattered, linear, and central courtyard patterns were the main patterns of residential block placement in the city. Therefore, the three mentioned patterns were studied in this research. To achieve this goal, ENVI-met (Version 4.4.4) was used, and to measure thermal comfort, the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV), as one of the important factors in the comfort status, was examined. Also, five receptors were determined at different points of the site to capture environmental conditions. Results: According to the results, the placement pattern of building blocks had a direct impact on thermal comfort conditions in open spaces. In all of the three studied patterns, the PMV index showed an upward trend from the early hours of the day and reaches its peak at 3 pm. The numerical value of the mentioned index was recorded 4.18, 3.81 and 3.29 for scattered, linear, and central courtyard patterns respectively. In most of the daytime, the central courtyard pattern had less mean value than the other two patterns. The average PMV index at the five designated receptors during the studied hours in the central courtyard was 1.97, differing by 0.26 from the scattered pattern and by 0.25 from the linear pattern. The most significant difference between the investigated patterns occurred in the time period from 1 pm to 4 pm, which emphasized the critical role of the pattern of block placement under critical conditions. Conclusions: According to the results, the layout of residential blocks affects the comfort conditions in the open space, and the central courtyard pattern can provide better conditions in the environment compared to the other two studied patterns. However, none of the three studied patterns create comfortable conditions in the environment during the peak heat hours. Therefore, to achieve such conditions, other factors in the environment must be considered. In conclusion, using the pattern of the courtyard, along with considering other climatic design strategies such as vegetation, sun shades, water features, etc. can be recommended as an effective solution to improve environmental conditions in outdoor spaces. Objective: Creating thermal comfort conditions in urban open spaces is a crucial factor in maintaining pedestrians’ health. This issue is important around residential blocks due to the long-term presence of people in the open spaces. In this study, thermal comfort conditions around residential blocks are investigated. The aim of the study is to examine the effect of different patterns of residential block placement on environmental conditions in the open spaces of the city of Tabriz, Iran, in the summer. Method: To perform this study, initially the patterns of residential block placement in the city of Tabriz were investigated, and it was determined that the scattered, linear, and central courtyard patterns were the main patterns of residential block placement in the city. Therefore, the three mentioned patterns were studied in this research. To achieve this goal, ENVI-met (Version 4.4.4) was used, and to measure thermal comfort, the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV), as one of the important factors in the comfort status, was examined. Also, five receptors were determined at different points of the site to capture environmental conditions. Results: According to the results, the placement pattern of building blocks had a direct impact on thermal comfort conditions in open spaces. In all of the three studied patterns, the PMV index showed an upward trend from the early hours of the day and reaches its peak at 3 pm. The numerical value of the mentioned index was recorded 4.18, 3.81 and 3.29 for scattered, linear, and central courtyard patterns respectively. In most of the daytime, the central courtyard pattern had less mean value than the other two patterns. The average PMV index at the five designated receptors during the studied hours in the central courtyard was 1.97, differing by 0.26 from the scattered pattern and by 0.25 from the linear pattern. The most significant difference between the investigated patterns occurred in the time period from 1 pm to 4 pm, which emphasized the critical role of the pattern of block placement under critical conditions. Conclusions: According to the results, the layout of residential blocks affects the comfort conditions in the open space, and the central courtyard pattern can provide better conditions in the environment compared to the other two studied patterns. However, none of the three studied patterns create comfortable conditions in the environment during the peak heat hours. Therefore, to achieve such conditions, other factors in the environment must be considered. In conclusion, using the pattern of the courtyard, along with considering other climatic design strategies such as vegetation, sun shades, water features, etc. can be recommended as an effective solution to improve environmental conditions in outdoor spaces.

https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_106332_d2904c49fb0d4d067f361e01a0acb4d6.pdf

University of Tehran Journal of Environmental Studies 1025-8620 51 4 2026 03 16 Spatial Analysis of the Effects of Green Infrastructure on Surface Urban Heat Island Intensity at the Neighborhood Scale in Tehran During the Period 2015-2025 Spatial Analysis of the Effects of Green Infrastructure on Surface Urban Heat Island Intensity at the Neighborhood Scale in Tehran During the Period 2015-2025 511 534 106250 10.22059/jes.2026.408985.1008667 FA Nahid Nematikutenaee Department of Geography, Faculty of Humanities, Islamic Azad University, Research and Science Branch, Tehran, Iran. Rama Ghalambordezfooly Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Islamic Azad University, Science and Technology Pardis Branch, Pardis, Iran. Journal Article 2026 01 02 Objective: This study aimed to spatially investigate the intensity of the surface urban heat island in 352 neighborhoods of the Tehran metropolis during the summers of 2015-2025. The emphasis was on the role of vegetation cover, percentage of tree cover, impervious surfaces, surface albedo, and topographic features (elevation, slope) in order to identify spatial heterogeneity patterns, calculate local cooling potential, and provide a prioritization framework for urban green infrastructure interventions. Method: Satellite remote sensing data from Landsat 8/9 (OLI/TIRS thermal bands) and Sentinel‑2 (MSI Level‑2A) on the Google Earth Engine platform were used to derive land surface temperature, the normalized difference vegetation index, tree cover percentage (WorldCover 2021), impervious surfaces, surface albedo, mean elevation (SRTM), and slope. Surface urban heat island intensity was calculated as the difference between the mean neighborhood land surface temperature and the median temperature of the entire city. Exploratory analyses included descriptive statistics, global and local Moran’s I (spatial autocorrelation), hot spot analysis (Getis‑Ord Gi* statistic), Pearson correlation, and simple regression. modeling comprised ordinary least squares regression, Lagrange Multiplier tests (for selecting spatial error/lag/Durbin models), multiscale geographically weighted regression, and calculation of a cooling potential index (combining the absolute values of significant local coefficients) implemented in ArcGIS Pro and Python. Results: According to the results, the mean land surface temperature was 44.21 ± 2.56, and the surface urban heat island intensity was 2.56 ± 0.10 degrees Celsius. Strong spatial autocorrelation was detected (global Moran’s I for heat island intensity = 0.7245, p < 0.001), and hot clusters of impervious surfaces were observed in the southern and central parts of the city. Strong correlations were found for elevation (r = −0.45), impervious surfaces (r = 0.38), and vegetation cover (r = −0.28). Multiscale geographically weighted regression (adjusted R² = 0.9224, adjusted Akaike information criterion = 2127.36) showed that vegetation cover (coefficient = −1.52), tree cover (coefficient = −0.11), and albedo (coefficient = −6.71) exerted significant cooling effects (p < 0.001 in 50–94% of neighborhoods), whereas impervious surfaces had a warming effect (in 100% of neighborhoods) with pronounced heterogeneity (local R² = 0.62–0.88). The mean cooling potential index was 3.97 (range: 2.28–6.38). Conclusions: The results indicate that tree and vegetation cover in a substantial proportion of Tehran’s neighborhoods have high cooling potential and play a key role in moderating the surface urban heat island. The multiscale geographically weighted regression (MGWR) model, which clearly outperforms global models (ordinary least squares regression with R² = 0.62 and the spatial error model with R² = 0.75), accurately reveals the spatial heterogeneity and location dependence of the relationships between variables. From a policy perspective, the findings underscore the need to prioritize green interventions in southern neighborhoods and parts of the city center characterized by high imperviousness and low cooling potential, a strategy that can promote thermal justice and enhance urban climate resilience. Objective: This study aimed to spatially investigate the intensity of the surface urban heat island in 352 neighborhoods of the Tehran metropolis during the summers of 2015-2025. The emphasis was on the role of vegetation cover, percentage of tree cover, impervious surfaces, surface albedo, and topographic features (elevation, slope) in order to identify spatial heterogeneity patterns, calculate local cooling potential, and provide a prioritization framework for urban green infrastructure interventions. Method: Satellite remote sensing data from Landsat 8/9 (OLI/TIRS thermal bands) and Sentinel‑2 (MSI Level‑2A) on the Google Earth Engine platform were used to derive land surface temperature, the normalized difference vegetation index, tree cover percentage (WorldCover 2021), impervious surfaces, surface albedo, mean elevation (SRTM), and slope. Surface urban heat island intensity was calculated as the difference between the mean neighborhood land surface temperature and the median temperature of the entire city. Exploratory analyses included descriptive statistics, global and local Moran’s I (spatial autocorrelation), hot spot analysis (Getis‑Ord Gi* statistic), Pearson correlation, and simple regression. modeling comprised ordinary least squares regression, Lagrange Multiplier tests (for selecting spatial error/lag/Durbin models), multiscale geographically weighted regression, and calculation of a cooling potential index (combining the absolute values of significant local coefficients) implemented in ArcGIS Pro and Python. Results: According to the results, the mean land surface temperature was 44.21 ± 2.56, and the surface urban heat island intensity was 2.56 ± 0.10 degrees Celsius. Strong spatial autocorrelation was detected (global Moran’s I for heat island intensity = 0.7245, p < 0.001), and hot clusters of impervious surfaces were observed in the southern and central parts of the city. Strong correlations were found for elevation (r = −0.45), impervious surfaces (r = 0.38), and vegetation cover (r = −0.28). Multiscale geographically weighted regression (adjusted R² = 0.9224, adjusted Akaike information criterion = 2127.36) showed that vegetation cover (coefficient = −1.52), tree cover (coefficient = −0.11), and albedo (coefficient = −6.71) exerted significant cooling effects (p < 0.001 in 50–94% of neighborhoods), whereas impervious surfaces had a warming effect (in 100% of neighborhoods) with pronounced heterogeneity (local R² = 0.62–0.88). The mean cooling potential index was 3.97 (range: 2.28–6.38). Conclusions: The results indicate that tree and vegetation cover in a substantial proportion of Tehran’s neighborhoods have high cooling potential and play a key role in moderating the surface urban heat island. The multiscale geographically weighted regression (MGWR) model, which clearly outperforms global models (ordinary least squares regression with R² = 0.62 and the spatial error model with R² = 0.75), accurately reveals the spatial heterogeneity and location dependence of the relationships between variables. From a policy perspective, the findings underscore the need to prioritize green interventions in southern neighborhoods and parts of the city center characterized by high imperviousness and low cooling potential, a strategy that can promote thermal justice and enhance urban climate resilience.

https://jes.ut.ac.ir/article_106250_426b8e0e6321dbd130277e99e7ef7f64.pdf